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Imagining European Identity: French Elites and the American Challenge in the Pompidou–Nixon Era

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 April 2010

AURÉLIE ÉLISA GFELLER
AURÉLIE ÉLISA GFELLER*
Affiliation:
Swiss National Science Foundation/European University Institute, Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, Via delle Fontanelle 19, I-50014 San Domenico di Fiesole (FI), Italy; aurelie.gfeller@eui.eu.
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Abstract

Charles de Gaulle has cast a long shadow over French political history and history writing. In exploring the French response to the United States' 1973 ‘Year of Europe’ initiative, this article challenges the dominant scholarly paradigm, which emphasises continuity between the 1960s and the 1970s. Drawing on a wide range of French and US archives, it demonstrates that renewed concerns about US power spurred the French elites both to reappraise the value of collective European action in foreign policy and to foster a pioneering concept: a politically anchored – as opposed to a geographically circumscribed – ‘European identity’.

Inventer l'identité européenne: les élites françaises et le défi américain au temps de georges pompidou et richard nixon

Charles de Gaulle a profondément marqué de son empreinte l'histoire politique française. Cet article questionne le paradigme historiographique de continuité entre l'ère gaullienne et les années 1970. Il repose sur une analyse de l'attitude française face à l'initiative américaine pour une ‘année de l'Europe’. Sur la base de documents d'archives françaises et américaines, l'auteur démontre que cette initiative, par les craintes renouvelées d'hégémonie américaine qu'elle suscita, poussa les élites françaises à donner un nouvel élan au projet d'Europe politique. Elles révisèrent ainsi leur jugement sur le principe d'une action conjointe en matière de politique étrangère. Les élites développèrent surtout un concept novateur: celui d'une ‘identité européenne’ renvoyant non plus à un héritage culturel ancré dans la géographie, mais à une entité politique.

Die vorstellung einer europäischen identität: die französischen eliten und die amerikanische herausforderung in der pompidou-nixon ära

Charles de Gaulle hat einen langen Schatten über die politische Geschichte und Historiographie Frankreichs geworfen. Das vorherrschende wissenschaftliche Paradigma, das die Kontinuität zwischen den 1960er und 1970er Jahren betont, wird mit der Untersuchung der französischen Antwort auf die amerikanische Initiative ‘Jahr Europas’ von 1973 in diesem Artikel hinterfragt. Durch die Verwendung von Dokumenten aus französischen und amerikanischen Archiven zeigt die Autorin auf, dass sich die französischen Eliten erneut mit der Macht der USA beschäftigten. Dies führte nicht nur zu einer Neubeurteilung der Möglichkeiten einer kollektiven europäischen Aussenpolitik, sondern auch zur Entwicklung eines innovativen Konzepts: einer ‘europäischen Identität’, die nicht auf einer geographischen, sondern auf einer politischen Einheit basierte.

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Articles
Information
Contemporary European History , Volume 19 , Issue 2 , May 2010 , pp. 133 - 149
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

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References

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2 A handful of articles and one recent book on the Year of Europe ignore significant elements of the story. They either investigate the British and the US perspective, or they rely exclusively on the papers of French President Georges Pompidou: Beers, Marloes, ‘European Unity and the Transatlantic Gulf in 1973’, in Scott-Smith, Giles, ed., European Community, Atlantic Community? (Paris: Soleb, 2008)Google Scholar; Hamilton, Keith, ‘Britain, France, and America's Year of Europe, 1973’, Diplomacy & Statecraft, 17 (2006), 871–95CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hanhimäki, Jussi M., ‘Kissinger et l'Europe: entre intégration et autonomie’, Relations internationales, 119 (2004), 319–32Google Scholar; Hiepel, Claudia, ‘Kissinger's “Year of Europe” – A Challenge for the EC and the Franco-German relationship’, in van der Harst, Jan, ed., Beyond the Customs Union: The European Community's Quest for Deepening, Widening and Completion, 1969–1975 (Brussels: Bruylant, 2007), 277–96Google Scholar; Hynes, Catherine, The Year That Never Was: Heath, the Nixon Administration and the Year of Europe (Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2009)Google Scholar; Mélandri, Pierre, ‘Une relation très spéciale. La France, les Etats-Unis et l'année de l'Europe, 1973–1974’, in Association Pompidou, Georges, ed., Georges Pompidou et l'Europe (Brussels: Editions Complexe, 1995), 89–131Google Scholar; Noble, Alastair, ‘Kissinger's “Year of Europe”, Britain's Year of Choice’, in Schulz, Matthias and Schwartz, Thomas A., eds., The Strained Alliance: US–European Relations from Nixon to Carter (Cambridge University Press, 2009)Google Scholar. The Year of Europe is also discussed in the first historical monograph on EPC: Daniel Möckli, European Foreign Policy during the Cold War: Heath, Brandt, Pompidou and the Dream of Political Unity (London: I.B. Tauris, 2009). Möckli's focus, however, is on the triangular diplomacy between Britain, France and West Germany – rather than France per se – and on key individuals within these three countries (president/prime minister, foreign ministers), with comparatively less emphasis on the views of other actors both within and outside government.

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8 The resignation of Nixon's closest aides – Bob Haldemann, his chief of staff, and John Ehrlichmann, his aide in charge of domestic affairs – lay only a few days ahead.

9 In November 1973, Kissinger complained that the NSC staff had not moved swiftly enough to prepare a new initiative on Europe (Telephone conversation (telcon) Kissinger/Peter Flanigan, 17 Nov. 1972, Nixon Presidential Materials (NPM), National Security Council (NSC), Kissinger files, telcons, 17). A week later, he commissioned a trans-departmental study of all current and future issues in transatlantic relations: National Security Study Memorandum 164 (NSC, NSSM 164, 18 Dec. 1972, NPM, NSC, Institutional files, 194).

10 NSC, NSSM 164.

11 Linking the United States’ spiralling balance-of-payments deficit to foreign defence spending, a number of US political leaders were calling for troop redeployment. See Kunz, Diane B., ‘Cold War Diplomacy: The Other Side of Containment’, in Kunz, Diane B., ed., The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations During the 1960s (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), 80–114Google Scholar; Gavin, Francis J., Gold, Dollars, and Power: The Politics of International Monetary Relations, 1958–1971 (Chapel Hill, NC, and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2004)Google Scholar. At the same time, the January 1973 EC enlargement to include Britain, Denmark and Ireland implied tariff increases on sensitive products. France, moreover, insisted on including ‘reverse preferences’ in the preferential trade agreement to be (re)negotiated with former French colonies and Commonwealth countries, which the United States firmly opposed.

12 ‘Kissinger: Address at Associated Press Luncheon’.

13 Vaïsse, ‘Les “relations spéciales”‘; Soutou, ‘Georges Pompidou et Valéry Giscard d'Estaing’.

14 French officials frequently used this term to analyse US–Soviet relations. See, e.g., Jacques Kosciusko-Morizet (ambassador in Washington), diplomatic dispatch 65, 9 July 1973, French Foreign Ministry (MAE), Soviet files 1971–6, 3693.

15 MAE, oral archives, Jobert, interview, 18 Sept. 1990.

16 Ibid.

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18 Sauvagnargues, telegram 1998–2006, 26 Apr. 1973, MAE, US files 1970–5, 1137.

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20 Quoted in Hamilton, ‘Britain, France, and America's Year of Europe’.

21 Quoted in ibid.

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