Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T10:38:31.849Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A cascade model connecting life stress to risk behavior among rural African American emerging adults

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  24 June 2010

Gene H. Brody ,
Yi-Fu Chen  and
Steven M. Kogan
Gene H. Brody*
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Yi-Fu Chen
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
Steven M. Kogan
Affiliation:
University of Georgia
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Gene H. Brody, Center for Family Research, University of Georgia, 1095 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30602-4527; E-mail: gbrody@uga.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

A three-wave cascade model linking life stress to increases in risk behavior was tested with 347 African American emerging adults living in the rural South. Data analyses using structural equation modeling and latent growth curve modeling demonstrated that life stress was linked to increases in risk behavior as African Americans transitioned out of secondary school. The cascade model indicated that life stress fostered increases in negative emotions. Negative emotions, in turn, were linked to increases in affiliations with deviant peers and romantic partners; this forecast increases in risk behavior. The findings supported a stress proliferation framework, in which primary stressors affect increases in secondary stressors that carry forward to influence changes in risk behaviors that can potentially compromise mental health.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 22 , Issue 3: Developmental Cascades: Part 1 , August 2010 , pp. 667 - 678
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M., Howell, C. T., McConaughy, S. H., & Stanger, C. (1998). Six-year predictors of problems in a national sample: IV. Young adult signs of disturbance. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 37, 718–727.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allison, K. R., Adlaf, E. M., & Mates, D. (1997). Life strain, coping and substance use among high school students. Addiction Research, 5, 251–272.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Aquilino, W. S. (1997). From adolescent to young adult: A prospective study of parent–child relations during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 59, 670–686.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aseltine, R. H. Jr., & Gore, S. L. (2000). The variable effects of stress on alcohol use from adolescence to early adulthood. Substance Use and Misuse, 35, 643–668.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Aseltine, R. H. Jr., Gore, S. L., & Gordon, J. (2000). Life stress, anger and anxiety, and delinquency: An empirical test of general strain theory. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 256–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baumeister, R. F., & Scher, S. J. (1988). Self-defeating behavior patterns among normal individuals: Review and analysis of common self-destructive tendencies. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 3–22.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beach, S. R. H., Kogan, S. M., Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., Lei, M.-K., & Murry, V. M. (2008). Change in caregiver depression as a function of the Strong African American Families program. Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 241–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Belle, D. (1982). Lives in stress: Women and depression. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration–aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boatright, S. R., & Bachtel, D. C. (2005). The Georgia county guide (24th ed.). Athens, GA: University of Georgia, Cooperative Extension Service.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Beach, S. R. H., Philibert, R. A., Chen, Y.-F., Lei, M.-K., Murry, V. M., et al. (2009). Parenting moderates a genetic vulnerability factor in longitudinal increases in youths’ substance use. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., Beach, S. R. H., Philibert, R. A., & Kogan, S. M. (2009). Participation in a family-centered prevention program decreases genetic risk for adolescents’ risky behaviors. Pediatrics, 124, 911–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Chen, Y.-F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L., Gibbons, F. X., et al. (2006). Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. Child Development, 77, 1170–1189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Flor, D. L., Hollett-Wright, N., & McCoy, J. K. (1998). Children's development of alcohol use norms: Contributions of parent and sibling norms, children's temperaments, and parent–child discussions. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 209–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Kogan, S. M., Chen, Y.-F., & Murry, V. M. (2008). Long-term effects of the Strong African American Families program on youths’ conduct problems. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43, 474–481.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Kogan, S. M., Chen, Y.-F., Smith, K., & Brown, A. C. (2009). Resilience effects of a family-based preventive intervention on African American emerging adults. Manuscript submitted for publication.Google Scholar
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., McNair, L. D., Brown, A. C., et al. (2006). The Strong African American Families program: Prevention of youths’ high-risk behavior and a test of a model of change. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 1–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brody, G. H., Murry, V. M., Gerrard, M., Gibbons, F. X., Molgaard, V., McNair, L. D., et al. (2004). The Strong African American Families program: Translating research into prevention programming. Child Development, 75, 900–917.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brook, J. S., Adams, R. E., Balka, E. B., Whiteman, M., Zhang, C., & Sugerman, R. (2004). Illicit drug use and risky sexual behavior among African American and Puerto Rican urban adolescents: The longitudinal links. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 165, 203–220.Google ScholarPubMed
Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). Lifelines and risks: Pathways of youth in our time. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Capaldi, D. M. (1992). Co-occurrence of conduct problems and depressive symptoms in early adolescent boys: II. A 2-year follow-up at Grade 8. Development and Psychopathology, 3, 277–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., & Herbener, E. S. (1990). Continuity and change: Assortative marriage and the consistency of personality in adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 250–258.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., & Herbener, E. S. (1993). Marital assortment and phenotypic convergence: Longitudinal evidence. Social Biology, 40, 48–60.Google ScholarPubMed
Castro, F. G., Maddahian, E., Newcomb, M. D., & Bentler, P. M. (1987). A multivariate model of the determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28, 273–289.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chatterji, P. (2006). Illicit drug use and educational attainment. Health Economics, 15, 489–511.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Schneider-Rosen, K. (1984). Toward a transactional model of childhood depression. New Directions for Child Development, 26, 5–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Tucker, D. (1994). Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 533–549.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Connell, A. M., & Dishion, T. J. (2006). The contribution of peers to monthly variation in adolescent depressed mood: A short-term longitudinal study with time-varying predictors. Development and Psychopathology, 18, 139–154.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cooper, M. L., Shapiro, C. M., & Powers, A. M. (1998). Motivations for sex and risky sexual behavior among adolescents and young adults: A functional perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 1528–1558.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Daley, S. E., & Hammen, C. (2002). Depressive symptoms and close relationships during the transition to adulthood: Perspectives from dysphoric women, their best friends, and their romantic partners. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 129–141.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., Eddy, J. M., Haas, E., Li, F., & Spracklen, K. M. (1997). Friendships and violent behavior during adolescence. Social Development, 6, 207–223.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dishion, T. J., McCord, J., & Poulin, F. (1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54, 755–764.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., Spracklen, K. M., Andrews, D. W., & Patterson, G. R. (1996). Deviancy training in male adolescents’ friendships. Behavior Therapy, 27, 373–390.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duncan, S. C., Duncan, T. E., & Strycker, L. A. (2006). Alcohol use from ages 9 to 16: A cohort-sequential latent growth model. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 81, 71–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DuRant, R. H., Smith, J. A., Kreiter, S. R., & Krowchuk, D. P. (1999). The relationship between early age of onset of initial substance use and engaging in multiple health risk behaviors among young adolescents. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, 153, 286–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, D. S., Ageton, S. S., & Huizinga, D. (1985). Explaining delinquency and drug use. Beverly Hills, CA: Siegel.Google Scholar
Engfer, A., Walper, S., & Rutter, M. L. (1994). Individual characteristics as a force in development. In Rutter, M. L. & Hay, D. (Eds.), Development through life: A handbook for clinicians (pp. 79–111). Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Folkman, S., Chesney, M. A., Pollack, L., & Phillips, C. (1992). Stress, coping, and high-risk sexual behavior. Health Psychology, 11, 218–222.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furman, W., & Escudero, H. (2006). The role of developmental context in romantic relationships. Paper presented at the Meeting of the Society for Research on Adolescence, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Ge, X., Conger, R. D., Lorenz, F. O., & Simons, R. L. (1994). Parents’ stressful life events and adolescent depressed mood. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 28–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. (1995). Predicting young adults’ health risk behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 505–517.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., & Brody, G. H. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African American parents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 517–529.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glueck, S., & Glueck, E. (1950). Unraveling juvenile delinquency. Oxford: Commonwealth Fund.Google Scholar
Gore, S. L., & Aseltine, R. H. Jr. (2003). Racial and ethnic differences in depressed mood following the transition from high school. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 370–390.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Graham, S., Taylor, A. Z., & Hudley, C. (1998). Exploring achievement values among ethnic minority early adolescents. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 606–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hall, H. I., Li, J., & McKenna, M. T. (2005). HIV in predominantly rural areas of the United States. Journal of Rural Health, 21, 245–254.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C. (2003). Risk and protective factors for children of depressed parents. In Luthar, S. S. (Ed.), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hartung, C. M., McCarthy, D. M., Milich, R., & Martin, C. A. (2005). Parent–adolescent agreement on disruptive behavior symptoms: A multitrait–multimethod model. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 27, 159–168.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
He, K., Kramer, E., Houser, R. F., Hacker, K. A., & Chomitz, V. R. (2004). Defining and understanding healthy lifestyles choices for adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35, 26–33.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Holz, V. J., & Tienda, M. (1998). Education and employment in a diverse society: Generating inequality through the school to work transition. In Denton, N. & Tolnay, S. (Eds.), American diversity: A demographic challenge for the twenty-first century (pp. 249–281). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Kendler, K. S., Walters, E. E., Neale, M. C., & Kessler, R. C. (1995). The structure of the genetic and environmental risk factors for six major psychiatric disorders in women: Phobia, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, bulimia, major depression, and alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 374–383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kogan, S. M., Berkel, C., Chen, Y.-F., Brody, G. H., & Murry, V. M. (2006). Metro status and African-American adolescents’ risk for substance use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 454–457.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., Schwab-Stone, M., Goodman, S. H., Waldman, I. D., Canino, G., Rathouz, P. J., et al. (2000). Age and gender differences in oppositional behavior and conduct problems: A cross-sectional household study of middle childhood and adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 488–503.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, J. K., Tuch, S. A., & Roman, P. M. (2003). Problem drinking patterns among African Americans: The impacts of reports of discrimination, perceptions of prejudice, and “risky” coping strategies. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 408–425.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Lessons from research on successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205–220.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meeus, W., Branje, S., & Overbeek, G. J. (2004). Parents and partners in crime: A six-year longitudinal study on changes in supportive relationships and delinquency in adolescence and young adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1288–1298.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Milhausen, R. R., Crosby, R., Yarber, W. L., DiClemente, R. J., Wingood, G. M., & Ding, K. (2003). Rural and nonrural African American high school students and STD/HIV sexual-risk behaviors. American Journal of Health Behavior, 27, 373–379.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patrick, D. L., Cheadle, A., Thompson, D. C., Diehr, P., Koepsell, T., & Kinne, S. (1994). The validity of self-reported smoking: A review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 84, 1086–1093.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Patterson, G. R., Reid, J. B., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). A social learning approach: IV. Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.Google Scholar
Patton, G. C., Hibbert, M., Rosier, M. J., Carlin, J. B., Caust, J., & Bowes, G. (1996). Is smoking associated with depression and anxiety in teenagers? American Journal of Public Health, 86, 225–230.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlin, L. I. (1989). The sociological study of stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 30, 241–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlin, L. I., Aneshensel, C. S., & Leblanc, A. J. (1997). The forms and mechanisms of stress proliferation: The case of AIDS caregivers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 223–236.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pearlin, L. I., Schieman, S., Fazio, E. M., & Meersman, S. C. (2005). Stress, health, and the life course: Some conceptual perspectives. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 46, 205–219.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Proctor, B. D., & Dalaker, J. (2003). Poverty in the United States: 2002 (Current Population Reports Series P60-222). Washington, DC: US Bureau of the Census.Google Scholar
Pumariega, A. J., Johnson, N. P., Sheridan, D., & Cuffe, S. P. (1996). The influence of race and gender on depressive and substance abuse symptoms in high-risk adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Mental Health, 2, 115–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quinton, D., Pickles, A., Maughan, B., & Rutter, M. L. (1993). Partners, peers, and pathways: Assortative pairing and continuities in conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 763–783.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. L., Maughan, B., Meyer, J., Pickles, A., Silberg, J., Simonoff, E., et al. (1996). Heterogeneity of antisocial behavior: Causes, continuities, and consequences. In Osgood, D. W. (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Vol. 44. Motivation and delinquency (pp. 45–118). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Sieving, R. E., Perry, C. L., & Williams, C. L. (2000). Do friendships change behaviors, or do behaviors change friendships? Examining paths of influence in young adolescents’ alcohol use. Journal of Adolescent Health, 26, 27–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Chen, Y.-F., Stewart, E. A., & Brody, G. H. (2003). Incidents of discrimination and risk for delinquency: A longitudinal test of strain theory with an African American sample. Justice Quarterly, 20, 827–854.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Murry, V. M., McLoyd, V. C., Lin, K.-H., Cutrona, C. E., & Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlates of depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevel analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 371–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Stewart, E. A., Gordon, L. C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H. Jr. (2002). A test of life-course explanations for stability and change in antisocial behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Criminology, 40, 401–434.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singer, J. D., & Willett, J. B. (2003). Applied longitudinal data analysis: Modeling change and event occurrence. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spielberger, C. D. (1999). State–Trait Anger Expression Inventory 2: Professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
The Governor's Office of Student Achievement. (2009). 2007–2008 Annual report card on K-12 public schools. Retrieved from http://www.gaosa.orgGoogle Scholar
Turner, R. J., Russell, D., Glover, R., & Hutto, P. (2007). The social antecedents of anger proneness in young adulthood. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48, 68–83.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Unger, J. B., Hamilton, J. E., & Sussman, S. (2004). A family member's job loss as a risk factor for smoking among adolescents. Health Psychology, 23, 308–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanyukov, M. M., Neale, M. C., Moss, H. B., & Tarter, R. E. (1996). Mating assortment and the liability to substance abuse. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 42, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (2001). Journeys from childhood to midlife: Risk, resilience, and recovery. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Whalen, C. K., Jamner, L. D., Henker, B., & Delfino, R. J. (2001). Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions: Evidence from surveys and electronic diaries. Health Psychology, 20, 99–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Windle, M., Mun, E. Y., & Windle, R. C. (2005). Adolescent-to-young adult heavy drinking trajectories and their prospective predictors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 313–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
W. T. Grant Foundation. (1989). The forgotten half: Non-college bound youth in America. Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar