Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T13:42:10.555Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The development of temperament and character during adolescence: The processes and phases of change

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 April 2018

Ada H. Zohar ,
Igor Zwir ,
Jiayu Wang ,
C. Robert Cloninger Open the ORCID record for C. Robert Cloninger [Opens in a new window]  and
Andrey P. Anokhin
Ada H. Zohar
Affiliation:
Ruppin Academic Center, Israel
Igor Zwir
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis
Jiayu Wang
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis
C. Robert Cloninger*
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis
Andrey P. Anokhin
Affiliation:
Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: C. Robert Cloninger, Washington University School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Campus Box 8134, 660 South Euclid Avenue, St. Louis, MO 63110; E-mail: crcloninger44@gmail.com.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

We studied the pattern of personality development in a longitudinal population-based sample of 752 American adolescents. Personality was assessed reliably with the Junior Temperament and Character Inventory at 12, 14, and 16 years of age. The rank-order stability of Junior Temperament and Character Inventory traits from age 12 to 16 was moderate (r = .35). Hierarchical linear modeling of between-group variance due to gender and within-group variance due to age indicated that harm avoidance and persistence decreased whereas self-directedness and cooperativeness increased from age 12 to 16. Novelty seeking, reward dependence, and self-transcendence increased from age 12 to 14 and then decreased. This biphasic pattern suggests that prior to age 14 teens became more emancipated from adult authorities while identifying more with the emergent norms of their peers, and after age 14 their created identity was internalized. Girls were more self-directed and cooperative than boys and maintained this advantage from age 12 to 16. Dependability of temperament at age 16 was mainly predicted by the same traits at earlier ages. In contrast, maturity of character at age 16 was predicted by both temperament and character at earlier ages. We conclude that character develops rapidly in adolescence to self-regulate temperament in accord with personally valued goals shaped by peers.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 31 , Issue 2 , May 2019 , pp. 601 - 617
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

This work was supported by NIH Grants DA018899 and DA00421 (to A.A.) and by the Wallace Renard and the Sansone Family Endowments (to C.R.C.). Ada H. Zohar was a Visiting Scholar on sabbatical with support from the Ruppin Academic Center. The authors also acknowledge the generous gift of time and effort by the study participants.

References

Andriola, E., Donfrancesco, R., Zaninotto, S., Di Trani, M., Cruciani, A. C., Innocenzi, M., … Cloninger, C. R. (2012). The Junior Temperament and Character Inventory: Italian validation of a questionnaire for the measurement of personality from ages 6 to 16 years. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 884–892. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.01.008.Google Scholar
Arnett, J. J. (1999). Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist, 54, 317–326.Google Scholar
Battaglia, M., Przybeck, T. R., Bellodi, L., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Temperament dimensions explain the comorbidity of psychiatric disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37, 292–298. doi:10.1016/S0010-440X(96)90008-5.Google Scholar
Bayon, C., Hill, K., Svrakic, D. M., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Dimensional assessment of personality in an out-patient sample: Relations of the systems of Millon and Cloninger. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 30, 341–352. doi:10.1016/0022-3956(96)00024-6.Google Scholar
Blonigen, D. M., Durbin, C. E., Hicks, B. M., Johnson, W., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2015). Alcohol use initiation is associated with changes in personality trait trajectories from early adolescence to young adulthood. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 39, 2163–2170. doi:10.1111/acer.12878.Google Scholar
Brandstrom, S., Przybeck, T. R., & Sigvardsson, S. (2011). Reliability of informant ratings and spouse similarity based on the Temperament and Character Inventory. Psychological Reports, 109, 231–242. doi:10.2466/02.09.PR0.109.4.231-242.Google Scholar
Campanella, F., Crescentini, C., Urgesi, C., & Fabbro, F. (2014). Mindfulness-oriented meditation improves self-related character scales in healthy individuals. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 55, 1269–1278. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2014.03.009.Google Scholar
Casey, B. J., Getz, S., & Galvan, A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Developmental Reviews, 28, 62–77. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.00.Google Scholar
Castellanos-Ryan, N., Parent, S., Vitaro, F., Tremblay, R. E., & Seguin, J. R. (2013). Pubertal development, personality, and substance use: A 10-year longitudinal study from childhood to adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 782–796. doi:10.1037/a0033133.Google Scholar
Chabrol, H., Melioli, T., & Goutaudier, N. (2015). Association between personality disorders traits and problematic cannabis use in adolescents. Substance Use and Misuse, 50, 552–556. doi:10.3109/10826084.2014.984851.Google Scholar
Chambers, C. D., Garavan, H., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2009). Insights into the neural basis of response inhibition from cognitive and clinical neuroscience. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Review, 33, 631–646. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.08.016.Google Scholar
Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (1996). Equifinality and multifinality in developmental psychopatology. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 597–600.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (2000). A practical way to diagnose personality disorder: A proposal. Journal of Personality Disorders, 14, 99–108.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (2003). Completing the psychobiological architecture of human personality development: Temperament, character, and coherence. In Staudinger, U. M. & Lindenberger, U. E. R. (Eds.), Understanding human development: Dialogues with lifespan psychology (pp. 159–182). London: Kluwer Academic.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (2004). Feeling Good: The science of well-being. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R. (2010). Personality and temperament: New and alternative perspectives. Focus, 8, 161–163.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., & Cloninger, K. M. (2011). Person-centered therapeutics. International Journal of Person-Centered Medicine, 1, 43–52.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., & Kedia, S. (2011). The phylogenesis of human personality: Identifying the precursors of cooperation, altruism, and well-being. In Sussman, R. W. & Cloninger, C. R. (Eds.), The origins of cooperation and altruism (1st ed., pp. 63–110). New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., & Svrakic, D. M. (2017). Personality disorders. In Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Ruiz, P. (Eds.), Kaplan and Sadock's comprehensive textbook of psychiatry (10th ed., Vol. 1). Philadelphia: Wolter Kluver Health.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, D. M., & Przybeck, T. R. (1993). A psychobiological model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 975–990.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Svrakic, N. M., & Svrakic, D. M. (1997). Role of personality self-organization in development of mental order and disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 881–906.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., & Zohar, A. H. (2011). Personality and the perception of health and happiness. Journal of Affective Disorders, 128, 24–32. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2010.06.012.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Zohar, A. H., & Cloninger, K. M. (2010). Promotion of well-being in person-centered mental health care. Focus, 8, 165–179.Google Scholar
Cloninger, C. R., Zohar, A. H., Hirschmann, S., & Dahan, D. (2012). The psychological costs and benefits of being highly persistent: Personality profiles distinguish mood disorders from anxiety disorders. Journal of Affective Disorders, 136, 758–766. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2011.09.046.Google Scholar
Copeland, W., Landry, K., Stanger, C., & Hudziak, J. J. (2004). Multi-informant assessment of temperament in children with externalizing behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 547–556. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_12.Google Scholar
Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.Google Scholar
Csorba, J., Dinya, E., Ferencz, E., Steiner, P., Bertalan, G., & Zsadon, A. (2010). Novelty seeking: Difference between suicidal and non-suicidal Hungarian adolescent outpatients suffering from depression. Journal of Affective Disorders, 120, 217–220. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.03.008.Google Scholar
Eldreth, D., Hardin, M. G., Pavletic, N., & Ernst, M. (2013). Adolescent transformations of behavioral and neural processes as potential targets for prevention. Prevention Science, 14, 257–266. doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0322-1.Google Scholar
Eley, D. S., Cloninger, C. R., Walter, L., Laurence, C., Synnott, R., & Wilkinson, D. (2013). The relationship between resilience and personality traits in doctors: Implications for enhancing well-being. Peer Journal, 1, e216. doi:10.7717/peerj.216.Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1994). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.Google Scholar
Fassino, S., Garzaro, L., Peris, C., Amianto, F., Piero, A., & Abbate Daga, G. (2002). Temperament and character in couples with fertility disorders: A double-blind, controlled study. Fertility and Sterility, 77, 1233–1240.Google Scholar
Friedman, H. S., Kern, M. L., Hampson, S. E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2014). A new life-span approach to conscientiousness and health: Combining the pieces of the causal puzzle. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1377–1389. doi:10.1037/a0030373.Google Scholar
Gardini, S., Cloninger, C. R., & Venneri, A. (2009). Individual differences in personality traits reflect structural variance in specific brain regions. Brain Research Bulletin, 79, 265–270. doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2009.03.005.Google Scholar
George, S. M., Connor, J. P., Gullo, M. J., & Young, R. M. (2010). A prospective study of personality features predictive of adolescent alcohol misuse. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 204–209. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.03.036.Google Scholar
Gillespie, N. A., Cloninger, C. R., Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (2003). The genetic and environmental relationship between Cloninger's dimensions of temperament and character. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1931–1946.Google Scholar
Göllner, R., Roberts, B. W., Damian, R. I., Ludtke, O., Jonkmann, K., & Trautwein, U. (2016). Whose “storm and stress” is it? Parent and child reports of personality development in the transition to early adolescence. Journal of Persnality. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/jopy.12246.Google Scholar
Gomez, R., & Corr, P. J. (2014). ADHD and personality: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 376–388. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.05.002.Google Scholar
Gothelf, D., Aharonovsky, O., Horesh, N., Carty, T., & Apter, A. (2004). Life events and personality factors in children and adolescents with obsessive-compulsive disorder and other anxiety disorders. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 45, 192–198. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2004.02.010.Google Scholar
Grucza, R. A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007). The comparative validity of 11 modern personality inventories: Predictions of behavioral acts, informant reports, and clinical indicators. Journal of Personality Assessment, 89, 167–187. doi:10.1080/00223890701468568.Google Scholar
Hiramura, H., Uji, M., Shikai, N., Chen, Z., Matsuoka, N., & Kitamura, T. (2011). Understanding externalizing behavior from children's personality and parenting characteristics. Psychiatry Research, 175, 142–147. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.07.041.Google Scholar
Hollinghead, A. (1975). Four-Factor Index of Social Status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University.Google Scholar
Josefsson, K., Jokela, M., Cloninger, C. R., Hintsanen, M., Salo, J., Hintsa, T., … Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L. (2013). Maturity and change in personality: Developmental trends of temperament and character in adulthood. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 713–727. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000126.Google Scholar
Josefsson, K., Jokela, M., Hintsanen, M., Cloninger, C. R., Pulkki-Raback, L., Merjonen, P., … Keltikangas-Jarvinen, L. (2013). Parental care-giving anf home environment predicting offspring temperament and character traits after 18 years. Psychiatry Research, 209, 643–651.Google Scholar
Joyce, P. R., Mulder, R. T., McKenzie, J. M., Luty, S. E., & Cloninger, C. R. (2004). Atypical depression, atypical temperament and a differential antidepressant response to fluoxetine and nortriptyline. Depression and Anxiety, 19, 180–186. doi:10.1002/da.20001.Google Scholar
Kant, I. (1797). Anthropology from a pragmatic point of view (Dowdell, V. L. & Van De Pitte, F. P., Trans., 1978 ed.). Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.Google Scholar
Kern, M. L., Della Porta, S. S., & Friedman, H. S. (2014). Lifelong pathways to longevity: Personality, relationships, flourishing, and health. Journal of Personality, 82, 472–484. doi:10.1111/jopy.12062.Google Scholar
Laucht, M., Becker, K., Blomeyer, D., & Schmidt, M. H. (2007). Novelty seeking involved in mediating the association between the dopamine D4 receptor gene exon III polymorphism and heavy drinking in male adolescents: Results from a high-risk community sample. Biological Psychiatry, 61, 87–92. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.05.025.Google Scholar
Levine, B. (2004). Autobiographical memory and the self in time: Brain lesion effects, functional neuroanatomy, and lifespan development. Brain and Cognition, 55, 54–68. doi:10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00280-X.Google Scholar
Luby, J. L., Svrakic, D. M., McCallum, K., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1999). The Junior Temperament and Character Inventory: Preliminary validation of a child self-report measure. Psychological Reports, 84(3, Pt. 2), 1127–1138.Google Scholar
Luna, B., Padmanabhan, A., & O'Hearn, K. (2010). What has fMRI told us about the development of cognitive control through adolescence? Brain and Cognition, 72, 101–113. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.08.005.Google Scholar
Maggini, C., Ampollini, P., Marchesi, C., Gariboldi, S., & Cloninger, C. R. (2000). Relationships between Tridimensional Personality Questionnaire Dimensions and DSM-III-R personality traits in Italian adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 41, 426–431. doi:10.1053/comp.2000.16559.Google Scholar
Martinotti, G., Mandelli, L., Di Nicola, M., Serretti, A., Fossati, A., Borroni, S., … Janiri, L. (2008). Psychometric characteristic of the Italian version of the Temperament and Character Inventory—Revised, personality, psychopathology, and attachment styles. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 49, 514–522. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2007.11.002.Google Scholar
McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5, 100–122.Google Scholar
McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T. Jr., Terracciano, A., Parker, W. D., Mills, C. J., De Fruyt, F., & Mervielde, I. (2002). Personality trait development from age 12 to age 18: Longitudinal, cross-sectional, and cross-cultural analyses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 1456–1468.Google Scholar
Meng, X. L., Rosenthal, R., & Rubin, D. B. (1992). Comparing correlated correlation coefficients. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 172–175.Google Scholar
Moreira, P. A., Cloninger, C. R., Dinis, L., Sa, L., Oliveira, J. T., Dias, A., & Oliveira, J. (2014). Personality and well-being in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1494. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01494.Google Scholar
Moreira, P. A., Oliveira, J. T., Cloninger, K. M., Azevedo, C., Sousa, A., Castro, J., & Cloninger, C. R. (2013). The psychometrics and validity of the Junior Temperament and Character Inventory in Portuguese adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 1227–1236. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2012.04.014.Google Scholar
Mulaik, S. A. (2009). Foundations of factor analysis (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.Google Scholar
Mulder, R. T., Joyce, P. R., Sellman, J. D., Sullivan, P. F., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Towards an understanding of defense style in terms of temperament and character. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 93, 99–104.Google Scholar
Mulder, R. T., Joyce, P. R., Sullivan, P. F., Bulik, C. M., & Carter, F. A. (1999). The relationship among three models of personality psychopathology: DSM-III-R personality disorder, TCI scores and DSQ defences. Psychological Medicine, 29, 943–951.Google Scholar
Nieuwenhuis, J., Hooimeijer, P., & Meeus, W. (2015). Neighbourhood effects on educational attainment of adolescents, buffered by personality and educational commitment. Social Science Research, 50, 100–109. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.11.011.Google Scholar
North, C. S., Abbacchi, A., & Cloninger, C. R. (2012). Personality and posttraumatic stress disorder among directly exposed survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 53, 1–8. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2011.02.005.Google Scholar
Pickett, K., & Wilkinson, R. (2009). The spirit level: Why greater equality makes societies stronger. New York: Bloombury Press.Google Scholar
Quoidbach, J., Hansenne, M., & Mottet, C. (2008). Personality and mental time travel: A differential approach to autonoetic consciousness. Consciousness and Cognition, 17, 1082–1092. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.04.002.Google Scholar
Recchia, A. (2010). R-squared measures for two-level hierarchical linear models using SAS. Journal of Statistical Software, 31, 17408. doi:10.18637/jss.v032.c02.Google Scholar
Rettew, D. C., Althoff, R. R., Dumenci, L., Ayer, L., & Hudziak, J. J. (2008). Latent profiles of temperament and their relations to psychopathology and wellness. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 273–281. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318160b403.Google Scholar
Rettew, D. C., Copeland, W., Stanger, C., & Hudziak, J. J. (2004). Associations between temperament and DSM-IV externalizing disorders in children and adolescents. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 25, 383–391. doi:10.1016/00004703-200412000-00001.Google Scholar
Rettew, D. C., Doyle, A. C., Kwan, M., Stanger, C., & Hudziak, J. J. (2006). Exploring the boundary between temperament and generalized anxiety disorder: A receiver operating characteristic analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 20, 931–945. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.02.002.Google Scholar
Rettew, D. C., Stanger, C., McKee, L., Doyle, A., & Hudziak, J. J. (2006). Interactions between child and parent temperament and child behavior problems. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 47, 412–420. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2005.12.008.Google Scholar
Rizzo, A. (2013). Temperament and generativity during the life span. Mediterranean Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1, 1–31. doi:10.6092/2282-1619/2013.1.892.Google Scholar
Rubia, K. (2013). Functional brain imaging across development. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 719–731. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0291-8.Google Scholar
Spear, L. P. (2013). Adolescent neurodevelopment. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(2, Suppl. 2), S7–S13. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.05.00.Google Scholar
Svrakic, D. M., Whitehead, C., Przybeck, T. R., & Cloninger, C. R. (1993). Differential diagnosis of personality disorders by the seven-factor model of temperament and character. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 991–999.Google Scholar
Sydsjo, G., Lampic, C., Brandstrom, S., Gudmundsson, J., Karlstrom, P. O., Solensten, N. G., … Skoog Svanberg, A. (2012). Who becomes a sperm donor: Personality characteristics in a national sample of identifiable donors. BJOG, 119, 33–39. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2011.03172.x.Google Scholar
Syed, M., & Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2013). Personality development from adolescence to emerging adulthood: Linking trajectories of ego development to the family context and identity formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 371–384. doi:10.1037/a0030070.Google Scholar
Tellegen, A., & Waller, N. G. (2008). Exploring personality through test construction: Development of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire. In Boyle, G. J., Matthews, G., & Saklofske, D. H. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of personality theory and assessment (Vol. 2, pp. 261–292). London: SAGE.Google Scholar
Tillman, R., Geller, B., Craney, J. L., Bolhofner, K., Williams, M., Zimerman, B., … Beringer, L. (2003). Temperament and character factors in a prepubertal and early adolescent bipolar disorder phenotype compared to attention deficit hyperactive and normal controls. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology, 13, 531–543. doi:10.1089/104454603322724922.Google Scholar
Tulving, E. (2001). Episodic memory and common sense: How far apart? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B Biological Sciences, 356, 1505–1515. doi:10.1098/rstb.2001.0937.Google Scholar
Vaillant, G. E. (1993). The wisdom of the ego. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Van den Akker, A. L., Dekovic, M., Asscher, J., & Prinzie, P. (2014). Mean-level personality development across childhood and adolescence: A temporary defiance of the maturity principle and bidirectional associations with parenting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107, 736–750. doi:10.1037/a0037248.Google Scholar
Vanhalst, J., Klimstra, T. A., Luyckx, K., Scholte, R. H., Engels, R. C., & Goossens, L. (2012). The interplay of loneliness and depressive symptoms across adolescence: Exploring the role of personality traits. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 41, 776–787. doi:10.1007/s10964-011-9726-7.Google Scholar
Van Schuerbeek, P., Baeken, C., De Raedt, R., De Mey, J., & Luypaert, R. (2011). Individual differences in local gray and white matter volumes reflect differences in temperament and character: A voxel-based morphometry study in healthy young females. Brain Research, 1371, 32–42. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2010.11.073.Google Scholar
Wilkinson, R., & Marmot, M. (2003). Social determinants of health: The solid facts. Copenhagen: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Willoughby, K. A., Desrocher, M., Levine, B., & Rovet, J. F. (2012). Episodic and semantic autobiographical memory and everyday memory during late childhood and early adolescence. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 53. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00053.Google Scholar
Wortman, J., Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2012). Stability and change in the Big Five personality domains: Evidence from a longitudinal study of Australians. Psychology and Aging, 27, 867–874. doi:10.1037/a0029322.Google Scholar
Yeager, D. S., Johnson, R., Spitzer, B. J., Trzesniewski, K. H., Powers, J., & Dweck, C. S. (2014). The far-reaching effects of believing people can change: Implicit theories of personality shape stress, health, and achievement during adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 106, 867–884. doi:10.1037/a0036335.Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H., Cloninger, C. R., & McCraty, R. (2013). Personality and heart rate variability: Exploring pathways from personality to cardiac coherence and health. Journal of Social Sciences, 1, 32–39.Google Scholar
Zohar, A. H., Sandbank, B., & Gelfin, M. (2015). The range of plasticity of personality: Implications for identity. In Stoyanov, D. (Ed.), Toward a new philosophy of mental health: Perspectives from neurosciences and humanities (pp. 156–172). Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Press.Google Scholar