Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-j824f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-16T07:27:21.914Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Language and internalizing and externalizing behavioral adjustment: Developmental pathways from childhood to adolescence

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 July 2013

Marc H. Bornstein ,
Chun-Shin Hahn  and
Joan T. D. Suwalsky
Marc H. Bornstein*
Affiliation:
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Chun-Shin Hahn
Affiliation:
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
Joan T. D. Suwalsky
Affiliation:
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Marc H. Bornstein, Child and Family Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health, Suite 8030, 6705 Rockledge Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892-7971; E-mail: Marc_H_Bornstein@nih.gov.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Two independent prospective longitudinal studies that cumulatively spanned the age interval from 4 years to 14 years used multiwave designs to investigate developmental associations between language and behavioral adjustment (internalizing and externalizing behavior problems). Altogether 224 children, their mothers, and teachers provided data. Series of nested path analysis models were used to determine the most parsimonious and plausible paths among the three constructs over and above stability in each across age and their covariation at each age. In both studies, children with poorer language skills in early childhood had more internalizing behavior problems in later childhood and in early adolescence. These developmental paths between language and behavioral adjustment held after taking into consideration children's nonverbal intellectual functioning, maternal verbal intelligence, education, parenting knowledge, and social desirability bias, as well as family socioeconomic status, and they applied equally to girls and boys.

Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 25 , Issue 3 , August 2013 , pp. 857 - 878
Creative Commons
This is a work of the US Government and is not subject to copyright protection in the United States.
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, T. M. (1991a). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist/4–18 and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991b). Manual for the Teacher's Report Form and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (1991c). Manual for the Youth Self-Report and 1991 profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M. (2000) Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist 1½−5. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., & Edelbrock, C. (1983). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry.Google Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., Howell, C. T., McConaughy, S. H., & Stanger, C. (1995). Six-year predictors of problems in a national sample: III. Transition to young adult syndromes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 34, 658–669.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Achenbach, T. M., Howell, C. T., Quay, H. C., & Conners, C. K. (1991). National survey of problems and competencies among four- to sixteen-year-olds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 56, 1–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families.Google Scholar
Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allen, K., & Prior, M. (1995). Assessment of the validity of easy and difficult temperament through observed mother–child behaviors. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 18, 609–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baker, L., & Cantwell, D. P. (1977). Psychiatric disorder in children with speech and language retardation. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 583–591.Google Scholar
Bates, E., Bretherton, I., & Snyder, L. (1988). From first words to grammar: Individual differences and dissociable mechanisms. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Behar, L. B. (1977). The Preschool Behavior Questionnaire. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 5, 265–275.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Behar, L., & Stringfield, S. (1974). A behavior rating scale for the preschool child. Developmental Psychology, 10, 601–610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beitchman, J. H., Nair, R., Clegg, M., Ferguson, B., & Patel, P. G. (1986). Prevalence of psychiatric disorders in children with speech and language disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 24, 528–535.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B., Brownlie, E. B., Walters, H., Inglis, A., & Lancee, W. (1996). Long-term consistency in speech–language profiles: II. Behavioral, emotional, and social outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 815–825.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beitchman, J. H., Wilson, B., Johnson, C. J., Atkinson, L., Young, A., Adlaf, E., et al. (2001). Fourteen-year follow-up of speech/language-impaired and control children: Psychiatric outcome. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 75–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bellinger, D. (1980, September). Sex differences in parental directives to young children. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Montreal.Google Scholar
Benasich, A., Curtiss, S., & Tallal, P. (1993). Language, learning, and behavioral disturbances in childhood: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 32, 585–594.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indices in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bentler, P. M. (1995). EQS structural equations program manual. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M., & Weeks, D. G. (1980). Multivariate analysis with latent variables. In Krishnaiah, P. R. & Kanal, L. (Eds.), Handbook of statistics (Vol. 2). Amsterdam: North-Holland.Google Scholar
Bentler, P. M., & Wu, E. J. C. (1995). EQS for Windows user's guide. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., & Bornstein, L. (2008). Psychological stability. In Darity, W. A. Jr. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of social sciences (2nd ed., Vol. 8, pp. 74–75). Detroit, MI: Macmillan Reference USA.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Cote, L. R., Haynes, O. M., Hahn, C.-S., & Park, Y. (2010). Parenting knowledge: Experiential and sociodemographic factors in European American mothers of young children. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1677–1693.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C.-S., & Haynes, O. M. (2004). Specific and general language performance across early childhood: Stability and gender considerations. First Language, 24, 267–304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C.-S., & Haynes, O. M. (2010). Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 717–735.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C.-S., Suwalsky, J. T. D., & Haynes, O. M. (2003). Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development: The Hollingshead Four Factor Index of Social Status and the Socioeconomic Index of Occupations. In Bornstein, M. H. & Bradley, R. H. (Eds.), Socioeconomic status, parenting, and child development (pp. 29–82). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Bornstein, M. H., Haynes, O. M., & Painter, K. M. (1998). Sources of child vocabulary competence: A multivariate model. Journal of Child Language, 25, 367–393.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bornstein, M. H., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Haynes, M. (1999). First words in the second year: Continuity, stability, and models of concurrent and lagged correspondence in vocabulary and verbal responsiveness across age and context. Infant Behavior and Development, 22, 65–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brinton, B., & Fujiki, M. (1993). Clinical forum: Language and social skills in the school-age population: Language, social skills and socioemotional behavior. Language, Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 24, 194–198.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In Bollen, K. A. & Long, J. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Long, J. D., & Masten, A. S. (2008). The interplay of social competence and psychopathology over 20 years: Testing transactional and cascade models. Child Development, 79, 359–374.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Campbell, S. B. (1995). Behavior problems in pre-school children: A review of recent research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 113–149.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carson, D. K., Klee, T., Perry, C. K., Muskina, G., & Donaghy, T. (1998). Comparisons of children with delayed and normal language at 24 months of age on measures of behavioral difficulties, social, and cognitive development. Infant Mental Health Journal, 19, 59–75.3.0.CO;2-V>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperament origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Schneider-Rosen, K. (1986). An organizational approach to childhood depression. In Rutter, M., Izard, C., & Read, P. (Eds.), Depression in young people: Clinical and developmental perspectives (pp. 71–134). New York: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Cole, D. A. (1990). Relation of social and academic competence to depressive symptoms in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, 422–429.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cole, D. A. (1991). Preliminary support for a competency-based model of depression in children. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 181–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24, 349–354.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cummings, E. M., Iannotti, J. J., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (1989). Aggression between peers in early childhood: Individual continuity and developmental change. Child Development, 60, 887–895.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dempster, A. P., Laird, N. M., & Rubin, D. B. (1977). Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B (Methodological), 39, 1–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, L. M. (1981). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test—Revised: Manual for Forms L and M. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Eckerman, C. O., Davis, C. C., & Didow, S. M. (1989). Toddler's emerging ways of achieving social coordination with a peer. Child Development, 60, 440–453.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, M. A. (1996). Reticent primary grade children and their more talkative peers: Verbal, nonverbal, and self-concept characteristics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 739–749.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feldman, H. M., Dollaghan, C. A., Campbell, T. F., Kurs-Lasky, M., Janosky, J. E., & Paradise, J. L. (2000). Measurement properties of the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories at ages 1 and 2 years. Child Development, 71, 310–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fowler, P. C., & Park, R. M. (1979). Factor structure of the Preschool Behavior Questionnaire in a normal population. Psychological Report, 45, 599–606.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fuijiki, M., Brinton, B., & Todd, C. (1996). Social skills of children with specific language impairment. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 27, 195–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gleason, J. B., & Ratner, N. B. (2008). Development of language (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.Google Scholar
Hartmann, D. P., Pelzel, K. E., & Abbott, C. (2011). Design, measurement, and analysis in developmental research. In Bornstein, M. H. & Lamb, M. E. (Eds.), Developmental science: An advanced textbook (6th ed., pp. 107–195). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312, 1900–1902.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hemphill, S. A. (1996). Characteristics of conduct-disordered children and their families: A review. Australian Psychologist, 31, 109–118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hill, E. L. (2001). Non-specific nature of specific language impairment: A review of the literature with regard to concomitant motor impairments. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 36, 149–171.Google ScholarPubMed
Hinshaw, S. P. (1992). Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 127–155.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hoff, E. (2008). Language development. Boston, MA: Wadsworth.Google Scholar
Hofstra, M. B., vam der Ende, J., & Verhulst, F. (2002). Child and adolescent problems predict DSM-IV disorders in adulthood: A 14-year follow-up of Dutch epidemiological sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 182–189.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hollingshead, A. (1975). Four Factor Index of Social Status. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University.Google Scholar
Howes, C., & Matheson, C. C. (1992). Sequences in the development of competent play with peers: Social and social pretend play. Developmental Psychology, 28, 961–974.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humes, K. R., Jones, N. A., & Ramirez, R. R. (2011). Overview of race and Hispanic origin (2010 Census Brief C2010BR-02). Washington, DC: US Census Bureau. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-02.pdfGoogle Scholar
Jager, J. (2011). A developmental shift in Black–White differences in depressive affect across adolescence and early adulthood: The influence of early adult social roles and socio-economic status. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 35, 457–469.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jastak, S., & Wilkinson, G. S. (1984). The Wide Range Achievement Test—Revised: Administration manual. Wilmington, DE: Jastak Association.Google Scholar
Johnson, C., Beitchman, J. H., Young, A. R., Escobar, M., Atkinson, L., Wilson, B., et al. (1999). Fourteen year follow-up of children with and without speech/language impairments: Speech/language stability and outcomes. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 42, 744–760.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J. (1971). Change and continuity in infancy. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kaler, S. R., & Kopp, C. B. (1990). Compliance and comprehension in very young toddlers. Child Development, 61, 1997–2003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaplan, D. (2000). Structural equation modeling: Foundations and extensions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Kiesner, J. (2002). Depressive symptoms in early adolescence: Their relations with classroom problem behavior and peer status. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 12, 463–478.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kim-Cohen, J., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Harrington, H. L., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2003). Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 709–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Koot, H. M. (1995). Longitudinal studies of general population and community samples. In Verhurst, F. C. & Koot, H. M. (Eds.), The epidemiology of child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 337–365). London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Koot, H. M., & Verhulst, F. C. (1992). Prediction of children's referral to mental health and special education services from earlier adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 717–729.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lahey, B. B., Loeber, R., Burke, J., Rathouz, P. J., & McBurnett, K. (2002). Waxing and waning in concert: Dynamic comorbidity of conduct disorder with other disruptive and emotional problems over 7 years among clinic-referred boys. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 256–267.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lochman, J. V., Lampron, L. D., & Rabiner, D. L. (1989). Format differences and salience effects in the social problem-solving assessment of aggressive and nonaggressive boys. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 18, 230–236.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., & Henry, V. (2001). The role of neuropsychological deficits in conduct disorders. In Hill, J. & Maughan, B. (Eds.), Conduct disorders in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Lynam, D. R., Moffitt, T., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1993). Explaining the relationship between IQ and delinquency: Class, race, test motivation, school failure or self-control? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 187–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
MacPhee, D. (1981). Knowledge of Infant Development Inventory. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.Google Scholar
Mardia, K. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57, 519–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S. (2005). Peer relationships and psychopathology in developmental perspective: Reflections on progress and promise. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 87–92.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Competence and psychopathology in development. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 696–738). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 491–495.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Curtis, W. J. (2000). Integrating competence and psychopathology: Pathways toward a comprehensive science of adaptation in development. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 529–550.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradović, J., Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking academic achievement and externalizing and internalizing symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41, 733–746.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mawhood, L. M., Howlin, P., & Rutter, M. (2000). Autism and developmental receptive language disorder—A follow-up comparative in early adult life: I. Cognitive and language outcomes. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 547–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McCarthy, D. (1972). McCarthy scales of children's abilities. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
McConaughy, S. H., Stanger, C., & Achenbach, T. M. (1992). Three-year course of behavioral/emotional problems in a national sample of 4- to 16-year-olds: I. Agreement among informants. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 932–940.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, B., White, D., McDevitt, T., & Raskin, R. (1983). Mothers' and fathers' speech to their young children: Similar or different. Journal of Child Language, 10, 245–252.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesman, J., Bongers, I. L., & Koot, H. M. (2001). Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 679–689.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mesman, J., & Koot, H. (2001). Early preschool predictors of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing DSM-IV diagnosis. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1029–1036.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moffitt, T. E. (1990). The neuropsychology of juvenile delinquency: A critical review. In Morris, N. & Tonry, M. (Eds.), Crime and justice: A review of research (Vol. 12, pp. 99–169). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2001). Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 355–375.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Harrington, H., & Milne, B. J. (2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 179–207.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1988). Self-reported delinquency, neuropsychological deficit, and history of attention deficit disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 16, 553–569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newcomer, P. L., & Hammill, D. D. (1982). Test of language development—Primary. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.Google Scholar
Petrill, S. (2005). Behavioral genetics and developmental disabilities. In Butler, M. & Meaney, F. (Eds.), Genetics of developmental disabilities (pp. 767–799). New York: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Pihlakoski, L., Sourander, A., Aromaa, M., Rautava, P., Helenius, H., & Sillanpää, M. (2006). The continuity of psychopathology from early childhood to preadolescence: A prospective cohort study of 3- to 12-year-old children. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 15, 409–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pine, D. S., Cohen, E., Cohen, P., & Brook, J. S. (2000). Social phobia and the persistence of conduct problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 657–665.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quay, H. C., & Peterson, D. R. (1983). Revised Behavior Problem Checklist. Coral Gables, FL: University of Miami.Google Scholar
Quay, H. C., & Peterson, D. R. (1987). Manual for the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist. Unpublished manuscript, University of Miami.Google Scholar
Rapin, I. (1998). Understanding childhood language disorder. Current Opinions in Pediatrics, 10, 561–566.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reynolds, W. M. (1982). Development of reliable and valid short forms of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 119–125.3.0.CO;2-I>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M. (1989). Pathways from childhood to adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 23–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., & Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 276–295.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sameroff, A. J., & Feil, L. A. (1985). Parental concepts of development. In Sigel, I. E. (Ed.), Parental belief systems: The psychological consequences for children (pp. 83–105). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Sameroff, A. J., & Seifer, R. (1983). Familial risk and child competence. Child Development, 54, 1254–1268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1988). Scaling corrections for chi-square statistics in covariance structure analysis. In Storey, D. & Cressy, R. (Eds.), American Statistical Association 1988 proceedings of business and economics sections (pp. 308–313). Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association.Google Scholar
Satorra, A., & Bentler, P. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In Von Eye, A. & Clogg, C. C. (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications for developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Short, R. J. (1991). Interpreting scale score differences on the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 51, 385–392.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Silva, P. A. (1987). Epidemiology, longitudinal course and some associated factors: An update. In Yule, W. & Rutter, M. (Eds.), Language development and disorders (pp. 1–15). London: MacKeith Press/Blackwell Scientific.Google Scholar
Sparrow, S. S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1984). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales—Interview edition, survey form. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Sparrow, S. S., Balla, D. A., & Cicchetti, D. V. (1985). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales—Classroom edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Sroufe, L. A. (1979). The coherence of individual development: Early care, attachment, and subsequent developmental issues. American Psychologist, 34, 834–841.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stattin, H., & Klackenberg-Larsson, I. (1993). Early language and intelligence development and their relationship to future criminal behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 102, 369–378.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stevenson, J. (1996). Developmental changes in the mechanisms linking language disabilities and behaviour disorders. In Beitchman, J. H., Cohen, N., Konstantereas, M. M., & Tannock, R. (Eds.), Language, learning and behavior disorders (pp. 78–99). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). New York: HarperCollins.Google Scholar
Tilton-Weaver, L. C., & Kakihara, F. (2008). United States of America. In Arnett, J. J. (Ed.), International encyclopedia of adolescence (pp. 1061–1076). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Twenge, J. M., & Crocker, J. (2002). Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray, Little, and Hafdahl. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 371–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
US Census Bureau. (2008). 2008 American community survey. Retrieved from www.factfinder.census.govGoogle Scholar
van IJzendoorn, M. H., Dijkstra, J., & Bus, A. G. (1995). Attachment, intelligence, and language: A meta-analysis. Social Development, 4, 115–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verhulst, F. C., & vam der Ende, J. (1995). The eight-year stability of problem behavior in an epidemiological sample. Pediatric Research, 38, 612–617.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1989). WPPSI-R Manual: Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Revised. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Wechsler, D. (1991). WISC-III: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Williams, S., & McGee, R. (1996). Reading in childhood and mental health in early adulthood. In Beitchman, J. H., Cohen, N. J., Konstantareas, M. M., & Tannock, R., (Eds.), Language, learning, and behavior disorders: Developmental, biological, and clinical perspectives (pp. 530–554). New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Woodcock, R., & Mather, N. (1989). Woodcock–Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery—Revised. Chicago: Riverside.Google Scholar