Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-mlc7c Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-11T02:43:15.414Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The moderating effects of traumatic stress on vulnerability to emotional distress during pregnancy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 June 2019

Irene Tung Open the ORCID record for Irene Tung [Opens in a new window] ,
Kate Keenan ,
Stephanie D. Stepp  and
Alison E. Hipwell
Irene Tung*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Kate Keenan
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
Stephanie D. Stepp
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
Alison E. Hipwell
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Irene Tung, Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, 3811 O'Hara Street, Suite 408, Pittsburgh, PA15213; E-mail: tungi@upmc.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Emotional distress during pregnancy is likely influenced by both maternal history of adversity and concurrent prenatal stressors, but prospective longitudinal studies are lacking. Guided by a life span model of pregnancy health and stress sensitization theories, this study investigated the influence of intimate partner violence (IPV) during pregnancy on the association between childhood adversity and prenatal emotional distress. Participants included an urban, community-based sample of 200 pregnant women (aged 18–24) assessed annually from ages 8 to 17 for a range of adversity domains, including traumatic violence, harsh parenting, caregiver loss, and compromised parenting. Models tested both linear and nonlinear effects of adversity as well as their interactions with IPV on prenatal anxiety and depression symptoms, controlling for potential confounds such as poverty and childhood anxiety and depression. Results showed that the associations between childhood adversity and pregnancy emotional distress were moderated by prenatal IPV, supporting a life span conceptualization of pregnancy health. Patterns of interactions were nonlinear, consistent with theories conceptualizing stress sensitization through an “adaptive calibration” lens. Furthermore, results diverged based on adversity subdomain and type of prenatal IPV (physical vs. emotional abuse). Findings are discussed in the context of existing stress sensitization theories and highlight important avenues for future research and practice.

Keywords

adverse childhood experiencesearly adversityintimate partner violencepregnancy stressstress sensitization
Type
Regular Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 32 , Issue 2 , May 2020 , pp. 673 - 686
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Alhusen, J. L., Frohman, N., & Purcell, G. (2015). Intimate partner violence and suicidal ideation in pregnant women. Archives of Women's Mental Health, 18, 573–578. doi:10.1007/s00737-015-0515-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alhusen, J. L., Lucea, M. B., Bullock, L., & Sharps, P. (2013). Intimate partner violence, substance use, and adverse neonatal outcomes among urban women. Journal of Pediatrics, 163, 471–476. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2013.01.036CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Alhusen, J. L., Ray, E., Sharps, P., & Bullock, L. (2015). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: Maternal and neonatal outcomes. Journal of Women's Health, 24, 100–106. doi:10.1089/jwh.2014.4872CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., … Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atkinson, L., Beitchman, J., Gonzalez, A., Young, A., Wilson, B., Escobar, M., … Villani, V. (2015). Cumulative risk, cumulative outcome: A 20-year longitudinal study. PLOS ONE, 10, e0127650. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127650CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Babor, T. F., de la Fuente, J. R., Saunders, J. B., & Grant, M. (1989). The alcohol use disorders identification test: Guidelines for use in primary health care. Geneva: World Health Organization.Google Scholar
Bailey, B. A. (2010). Partner violence during pregnancy: Prevalence, effects, screening, and management. International Journal of Women's Health, 2, 183–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, B. A., & Daugherty, R. A. (2007). Intimate partner violence during pregnancy: Incidence and associated health behaviors in a rural population. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 11, 495–503. doi:10.1007/s10995-007-0191-6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, J. A., Hill, K. G., Guttmannova, K., Oesterle, S., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., & McMahon, R. J. (2013). The association between parent early adult drug use disorder and later observed parenting practices and child behavior problems: Testing alternate models. Developmental Psychology, 49, 887–899. doi:10.1037/a0029235CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baldwin, M. W. (1992). Relational schemas and the processing of social information. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 461–484. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.461CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baldwin, M. W., & Meunier, J. (1999). The cued activation of attachment relational schemas. Social Cognition, 17, 209–227. doi:10.1521/soco.1999.17.2.209CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnard, K. (1988). Difficult Life Circumstances Scale. Unpublished measure, University of Washington, Seattle.Google Scholar
Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Beck Depression Inventory—II (BDI-II). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Beydoun, H. A., Beydoun, M. A., Kaufman, J. S., Lo, B., & Zonderman, A. B. (2012). Intimate partner violence against adult women and its association with major depressive disorder, depressive symptoms and postpartum depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 75, 959–975. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Birmaher, B., Khetarpal, S., Brent, D., Cully, M., Balach, L., Kaufman, J., & Neer, S. M. (1997). The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): Scale construction and psychometric characteristics. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 545–553.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bonomi, A. E., Anderson, M. L., Reid, R. J., Rivara, F. P., Carrell, D., & Thompson, R. S. (2009). Medical and psychosocial diagnoses in women with a history of intimate partner violence. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169, 1692–1697. doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2009.292CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary–developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271–301. doi:10.1017/S0954579405050145CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brody, G. H., Yu, T., Chen, E., Miller, G. E., Kogan, S. M., & Beach, S. R. H. (2013). Is resilience only skin deep? Rural African Americans’ socioeconomic status–related risk and competence in preadolescence and psychological adjustment and allostatic load at age 19. Psychological Science, 24, 1285–1293. doi:10.1177/0956797612471954CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brummelte, S., & Galea, L. A. M. (2010). Depression during pregnancy and postpartum: Contribution of stress and ovarian hormones. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 34, 766–776. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2009.09.006CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bunea, I. M., Szentágotai-Tătar, A., & Miu, A. C. (2017). Early-life adversity and cortisol response to social stress: A meta-analysis. Translational Psychiatry, 7, 1274. doi:10.1038/s41398-017-0032-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Castro, R., Peek-Asa, C., García, L., Ruiz, A., & Kraus, J. F. (2003). Risks for abuse against pregnant Hispanic women: Morelos, Mexico and Los Angeles County, California. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 325–332. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(03)00211-3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). About the CDC-Kaiser ACE Study. Retrieved April 28, 2018, from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/acestudy/about.htmlGoogle Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018, May 17). Intimate partner violence. Retrieved May 21, 2018, from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/index.htmlGoogle Scholar
Chartier, M. J., Walker, J. R., & Naimark, B. (2010). Separate and cumulative effects of adverse childhood experiences in predicting adult health and health care utilization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 34, 454–464. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.09.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chung, E. K., Nurmohamed, L., Mathew, L., Elo, I. T., Coyne, J. C., & Culhane, J. F. (2010). Risky health behaviors among mothers-to-be: The impact of adverse childhood experiences. Academic Pediatrics, 10, 245–251. doi:10.1016/j.acap.2010.04.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Collins, L. M., Schafer, J. L., & Kam, C.-M. (2001). A comparison of inclusive and restrictive strategies in modern missing data procedures. Psychological Methods, 6, 330–351. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.6.4.330CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cronholm, P. F., Forke, C. M., Wade, R., Bair-Merritt, M. H., Davis, M., Harkins-Schwarz, M., … Fein, J. A. (2015). Adverse childhood experiences: Expanding the concept of adversity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 49, 354–361. doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2015.02.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Danese, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2012). Adverse childhood experiences, allostasis, allostatic load, and age-related disease. Physiology & Behavior, 106, 29–39. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.019CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Deater-Deckard, K., & Dodge, K. A. (1997). Externalizing behavior problems and discipline revisited: Nonlinear effects and variation by culture, context, and gender. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 161–175. doi:10.2307/1448881CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Del Giudice, M., Hinnant, J. B., Ellis, B. J., & El-Sheikh, M. (2012). Adaptive patterns of stress responsivity: A preliminary investigation. Developmental Psychology, 48, 775–790. doi:10.1037/a0026519CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dienes, K. A., Hammen, C., Henry, R. M., Cohen, A. N., & Daley, S. E. (2006). The stress sensitization hypothesis: Understanding the course of bipolar disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 95, 43–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dunkel Schetter, C., & Tanner, L. (2012). Anxiety, depression and stress in pregnancy: Implications for mothers, children, research, and practice. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 25, 141–148. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e3283503680CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2008). Biological sensitivity to context. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 183–187. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00571.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ellis, B. J., Oldehinkel, A. J., & Nederhof, E. (2017). The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity: An empirical test in the Tracking Adolescents’ Individual Lives Survey study. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 1001–1021. doi:10.1017/S0954579416000985CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W. (2004). The environment of childhood poverty. American Psychologist, 59, 77–92. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., … Marks, J. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14, 245–258. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Foa, E. B., Johnson, K. M., Feeny, N. C., & Treadwell, K. R. H. (2001). The Child PTSD Symptom Scale: A preliminary examination of its psychometric properties. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 30, 376–384. doi:10.1207/S15374424JCCP3003_9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ford, D. C., Merrick, M. T., Parks, S. E., Breiding, M. J., Gilbert, L. K., Edwards, V. J., … Thompson, W. W. (2014). Examination of the factorial structure of adverse childhood experiences and recommendations for three subscale scores. Psychology of Violence, 4, 432–444. doi:10.1037/a0037723CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frankenhuis, W. E., & Del Giudice, M. (2012). When do adaptive developmental mechanisms yield maladaptive outcomes? Developmental Psychology, 48, 628–642. doi:10.1037/a0025629CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gadow, K. D., & Sprafkin, J. (1994). Child Symptom Inventories manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Gadow, K. D., Sprafkin, J., & Weiss, M. D. (2004). Adult Self-Report Inventory—4 Manual. Stony Brook, NY: Checkmate Plus.Google Scholar
Glaser, J.-P., van Os, J., Portegijs, P. J. M., & Myin-Germeys, I. (2006). Childhood trauma and emotional reactivity to daily life stress in adult frequent attenders of general practitioners. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 61, 229–236. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2006.04.014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Glynn, L. M., Howland, M. A., Sandman, C. A., Davis, E. P., Phelan, M., Baram, T. Z., & Stern, H. S. (2018). Prenatal maternal mood patterns predict child temperament and adolescent mental health. Journal of Affective Disorders, 228, 83–90. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.11.065CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Early adversity and the development of stress reactivity and regulation. In Nelson, C. A. (Ed.), The effects of early adversity on neurobehavioral development (Vol. 31, pp. 163–200). New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S. S., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10–12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 62–75. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2008.08.013CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hammen, C., Henry, R., & Daley, S. E. (2000). Depression and sensitization to stressors among young women as a function of childhood adversity. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 782–787.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hardt, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Validity of adult retrospective reports of adverse childhood experiences: Review of the evidence. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 260–273. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00218.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harkness, K. L., Bruce, A. E., & Lumley, M. N. (2006). The role of childhood abuse and neglect in the sensitization to stressful life events in adolescent depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 730.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hipwell, A. E., Loeber, R., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Keenan, K., White, H. R., & Kroneman, L. (2002). Characteristics of girls with early onset disruptive and antisocial behaviour. Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health, 12, 99–118.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huang, C.-C., Wang, L.-R., & Warrener, C. (2010). Effects of domestic violence on behavior problems of preschool-aged children: Do maternal mental health and parenting mediate the effects? Children and Youth Services Review, 32, 1317–1323. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2010.04.024CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hughes, K., Bellis, M. A., Hardcastle, K. A., Sethi, D., Butchart, A., Mikton, C., … Dunne, M. P. (2017). The effect of multiple adverse childhood experiences on health: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public Health, 2, e356–e366. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30118-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Humphreys, K. L., & Zeanah, C. H. (2015). Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology. Neuro-Psychopharmacology, 40, 154–170. doi:10.1038/npp.2014.165CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hunter, A. L., Minnis, H., & Wilson, P. (2011). Altered stress responses in children exposed to early adversity: A systematic review of salivary cortisol studies. Stress, 14, 614–626. doi:10.3109/10253890.2011.577848CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Huth-Bocks, A. C., Krause, K., Ahlfs-Dunn, S., Gallagher, E., & Scott, S. (2013). Relational trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms among pregnant women. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 41, 277–301. doi:10.1521/pdps.2013.41.2.277CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kalmakis, K. A., & Chandler, G. E. (2015). Health consequences of adverse childhood experiences: A systematic review. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners, 27, 457–465. doi:10.1002/2327-6924.12215CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karatekin, C., & Hill, M. (2018). Expanding the original definition of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s40653-018-0237-5Google Scholar
Keenan, K., Hipwell, A., Chung, T., Stepp, S., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., & McTigue, K. (2010). The Pittsburgh Girls Study: Overview and initial findings. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 506–521.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keenan, K., Hipwell, A. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2004). The Abuse Questionnaire. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh Girls Study.Google Scholar
Kessler, R. C., Molnar, B. E., Feurer, I. D., & Appelbaum, M. (2001). Patterns and mental health predictors of domestic violence in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 24, 487–508. doi:10.1016/S0160-2527(01)00080-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Li, Y., Long, Z., Cao, D., & Cao, F. (2017). Maternal history of child maltreatment and maternal depression risk in the perinatal period: A longitudinal study. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63(Suppl. C), 192–201. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.12.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Loeber, R., Farrington, D. P., Stouthamer-Loeber, M., & Van Kammen, W. B. (1998). Antisocial behavior and mental health problems: Risk factors in childhood and adolescence. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lovallo, W. R., Farag, N. H., Sorocco, K. H., Cohoon, A. J., & Vincent, A. S. (2012). Lifetime adversity leads to blunted stress axis reactivity: Studies from the Oklahoma Family Health Patterns Project. Biological Psychiatry, 71, 344–349. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.10.018CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Madigan, S., Wade, M., Plamondon, A., Vaillancourt, K., Jenkins, J. M., Shouldice, M., & Benoit, D. (2014). Course of depression and anxiety symptoms during the transition to parenthood for female adolescents with histories of victimization. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 1160–1170. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.04.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Martin, S. L., Li, Y., Casanueva, C., Harris-Britt, A., Kupper, L. L., & Cloutier, S. (2006). Intimate partner violence and women's depression before and during pregnancy. Violence Against Women, 12, 221–239. doi:10.1177/1077801205285106CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McDonnell, C. G., & Valentino, K. (2016). Intergenerational effects of childhood trauma: Evaluating pathways among maternal ACEs, perinatal depressive symptoms, and infant outcomes. Child Maltreatment, 21, 317–326. doi:10.1177/1077559516659556CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Conron, K. J., Koenen, K. C., & Gilman, S. E. (2010). Childhood adversity, adult stressful life events, and risk of past-year psychiatric disorder: A test of the stress sensitization hypothesis in a population-based sample of adults. Psychological Medicine, 40, 1647–1658. doi:10.1017/S0033291709992121CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLaughlin, K. A., & Sheridan, M. A. (2016). Beyond cumulative risk: A dimensional approach to childhood adversity. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25, 239–245. doi:10.1177/0963721416655883CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., & Lambert, H. K. (2014). Childhood adversity and neural development: Deprivation and threat as distinct dimensions of early experience. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 47, 578–591. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.10.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLaughlin, K. A., Sheridan, M. A., Tibu, F., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2015). Causal effects of the early caregiving environment on development of stress response systems in children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 5637–5642. doi:10.1073/pnas.1423363112CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mersky, J. P., Janczewski, C. E., & Topitzes, J. (2017). Rethinking the measurement of adversity: Moving toward second-generation research on adverse childhood experiences. Child Maltreatment, 22, 58–68. doi:10.1177/1077559516679513CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mersky, J. P., Topitzes, J., & Reynolds, A. J. (2013). Impacts of adverse childhood experiences on health, mental health, and substance use in early adulthood: A cohort study of an urban, minority sample in the U.S. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37, 917–925. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.07.011CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mezey, G., Bacchus, L., Bewley, S., & White, S. (2005). Domestic violence, lifetime trauma and psychological health of childbearing women. BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, 112, 197–204. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00307.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Misra, D. P., Guyer, B., & Allston, A. (2003). Integrated perinatal health framework: A multiple determinants model with a life span approach. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 65–75. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(03)00090-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Naicker, S. N., Norris, S. A., Mabaso, M., & Richter, L. M. (2017). An analysis of retrospective and repeat prospective reports of adverse childhood experiences from the South African Birth to Twenty Plus cohort. PLOS ONE, 12, e0181522. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0181522CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Narayan, A. J., Hagan, M. J., Cohodes, E., Rivera, L. M., & Lieberman, A. F. (2019). Early childhood victimization and physical intimate partner violence during pregnancy: A developmental and person-oriented approach. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34, 3–26.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neger, E. N., & Prinz, R. J. (2015). Interventions to address parenting and parental substance abuse: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Clinical Psychology Review, 39, 71–82. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.04.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Neigh, G. N., Gillespie, C. F., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2009). The neurobiological toll of child abuse and neglect. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 10, 389–410. doi:10.1177/1524838009339758CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Newbury, J. B., Arseneault, L., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Danese, A., Baldwin, J. R., & Fisher, H. L. (2017). Measuring childhood maltreatment to predict early-adult psychopathology: Comparison of prospective informant-reports and retrospective self-reports. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 96, 57–64. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.09.020CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pico-Alfonso, M. A., Garcia-Linares, M. I., Celda-Navarro, N., Blasco-Ros, C., Echeburúa, E., & Martinez, M. (2006). The impact of physical, psychological, and sexual intimate male partner violence on women's mental health: Depressive symptoms, posttraumatic stress disorder, state anxiety, and suicide. Journal of Women's Health, 15, 599–611. doi:10.1089/jwh.2006.15.599CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pine, D. S., Mogg, K., Bradley, B. P., Montgomery, L., Monk, C. S., McClure, E., … Kaufman, J. (2005). Attention bias to threat in maltreated children: Implications for vulnerability to stress-related psychopathology. American Journal of Psychiatry, 162, 291–296. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.162.2.291CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Preacher, K. J., Curran, P. J., & Bauer, D. J. (2006). Computational tools for probing interactions in multiple linear regression, multilevel modeling, and latent curve analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 31, 437–448. doi:10.3102/10769986031004437CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reuben, A., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Belsky, D. W., Harrington, H., Schroeder, F., … Danese, A. (2016). Lest we forget: Comparing retrospective and prospective assessments of adverse childhood experiences in the prediction of adult health. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 57, 1103–1112. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12621CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ripoll-Núñez, K. J., & Rohner, R. P. (2006). Corporal punishment in cross-cultural perspective: Directions for a research agenda. Cross-Cultural Research, 40, 220–249. doi:10.1177/1069397105284395CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roxburgh, S., & MacArthur, K. R. (2014). Childhood adversity and adult depression among the incarcerated: Differential exposure and vulnerability by race/ethnicity and gender. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38, 1409–1420. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.02.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57, 316–331.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2006). Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1094, 1–12. doi:10.1196/annals.1376.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24, 335–344. doi:10.1017/S0954579412000028CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2013). Annual Research Review: Resilience—Clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 54, 474–487. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02615.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ruttle, P. L., Shirtcliff, E. A., Serbin, L. A., Fisher, D. B.-D., Stack, D. M., & Schwartzman, A. E. (2011). Disentangling psychobiological mechanisms underlying internalizing and externalizing behaviors in youth: Longitudinal and concurrent associations with cortisol. Hormones and Behavior, 59, 123–132. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.10.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sara, G., & Lappin, J. (2017). Childhood trauma: Psychiatry's greatest public health challenge? Lancet Public Health, 2, e300–e301. doi:10.1016/S2468-2667(17)30104-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1025–1041. doi:10.1037/a0021344CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shapero, B. G., Farabaugh, A., Terechina, O., DeCross, S., Cheung, J. C., Fava, M., & Holt, D. J. (2019). Understanding the effects of emotional reactivity on depression and suicidal thoughts and behaviors: Moderating effects of childhood adversity and resilience. Journal of Affective Disorders, 245, 419–427. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.033CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shapero, B. G., Hamilton, J. L., Stange, J. P., Liu, R. T., Abramson, L. Y., & Alloy, L. B. (2015). Moderate childhood stress buffers against depressive response to proximal stressors: A multi-wave prospective study of early adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 1403–1413. doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0021-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Simons, R. L., Woodring, D., Simons, L. G., Sutton, T. E., Lei, M.-K., Beach, S. R. H., … Gibbons, F. X. (2019). Youth adversities amplify the association between adult stressors and chronic inflammation in a domain specific manner: Nuancing the early life sensitivity model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence. Advance online publication. doi:10.1007/s10964-018-0977-4CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simons, R. L., Wu, C.-I., Lin, K.-H., Gordon, L., & Conger, R. D. (2000). A cross-cultural examination of the link between corporal punishment and adolescent antisocial behavior. Criminology, 38, 47–80. doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2000.tb00883.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, S. G., Zhang, X., Basile, K. C., Merrick, M. T., Wang, J., Kresnow, M., & Chen, J. (2018). National intimate partner and sexual violence survey: 2015 data brief. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/nisvs/2015NISVSdatabrief.htmlGoogle Scholar
Soper, D. S. (2019). A-priori sample size calculator for multiple regression. Retrieved from http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalcGoogle Scholar
Sprafkin, J., Gadow, K. D., Weiss, M. D., Schneider, J., & Nolan, E. E. (2007). Psychiatric comorbidity in ADHD symptom subtypes in clinic and community adults. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 114–124. doi:10.1177/1087054707299402CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Boney-McCoy, S., & Sugarman, D. B. (1996). The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17, 283–316. doi:10.1177/019251396017003001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Straus, M. A., Hamby, S. L., Finkelhor, D., Moore, D. W., & Runyan, D. (1998). Identification of child maltreatment with the Parent–Child Conflict Tactics Scales: Development and psychometric data for a national sample of American parents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 249–270. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00174-9CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taillieu, T. L., & Brownridge, D. A. (2010). Violence against pregnant women: Prevalence, patterns, risk factors, theories, and directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 14–35. doi:10.1016/j.avb.2009.07.013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turney, K. (2011). Labored love: Examining the link between maternal depression and parenting behaviors. Social Science Research, 40, 399–415. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2010.09.009CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vogel, E. H., & Wagner, A. R. (2005). Stimulus specificity in the habituation of the startle response in the rat. Physiology & Behavior, 86, 516–525. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.08.042CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
White, H. R., Hipwell, A. E., & Mizelle, K. (2002). Parent Substance Use Inventory (SUI). Unpublished instrument, Pittsburgh Girls Study.Google Scholar
Wood, S. K., & Bhatnagar, S. (2015). Resilience to the effects of social stress: Evidence from clinical and preclinical studies on the role of coping strategies. Neurobiology of Stress, 1, 164–173. doi:10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.11.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yildiz Inanici, S., Inanici, M. A., & Yoldemir, A. T. (2017). The relationship between subjective experience of childhood abuse and neglect and depressive symptoms during pregnancy. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 49(Suppl. C), 76–80. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2017.05.016CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yun, S. H. (2011). Factor structure and reliability of the revised conflict tactics scales’ (CTS2) 10-factor model in a community-based female sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 719–744. doi:10.1177/0886260510365857CrossRefGoogle Scholar