Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-l7hp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T18:41:12.300Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A bioecocultural approach to supporting adolescent mothers and their young children in conflict-affected contexts

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 February 2021

Alice J. Wuermli Open the ORCID record for Alice J. Wuermli [Opens in a new window] ,
Hirokazu Yoshikawa  and
Paul D. Hastings
Alice J. Wuermli*
Affiliation:
Global TIES for Children, New York University, New York, NY, USA
Hirokazu Yoshikawa
Affiliation:
Department of Applied Psychology, Global TIES for Children, New York University, New York, NY, USA
Paul D. Hastings
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Alice J. Wuermli; mailing address (during Covid): 65 Maple Street Apt 416, Jersey City, NJ 07304, USA; E-mail: alice.wuermli@nyu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

An estimated 12 million girls aged 15–19 years, and 777,000 girls younger than 15 give birth globally each year. Contexts of war and displacement increase the likelihood of early marriage and childbearing. Given the developmentally sensitive periods of early childhood and adolescence, adolescent motherhood in conflict-affected contexts may put a family at risk intergenerationally. We propose that the specifics of normative neuroendocrine development during adolescence, including increased sensitivity to stress, pose additional risks to adolescent girls and their young children in the face of war and displacement, with potential lifelong consequences for health and development. This paper proposes a developmental, dual-generational framework for research and policies to better understand and address the needs of adolescent mothers and their small children. We draw from the literature on developmental stress physiology, adolescent parenthood in contexts of war and displacement internationally, and developmental cultural neurobiology. We also identify culturally meaningful sources of resilience and provide a review of the existing literature on interventions supporting adolescent mothers and their offspring. We aim to honor Edward Zigler's groundbreaking life and career by integrating basic developmental science with applied intervention and policy.

Keywords

adolescent mothersadolescent pregnancyconflictculturehumanitarianinterventionlow- and middle-income countriesresiliencestress
Type
Special Issue Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 33 , Special Issue 2: Honoring the Legacy of Ed Zigler's Lifetime Contributions to Science, Society, and Child Wellbeing , May 2021 , pp. 714 - 726
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adoho, F., Chakravarty, S., Korkoyah, D. T., Lundberg, M., & Tasneem, A. (2014). The impact of an adolescent girls employment program: The EPAG project in Liberia. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aizer, A. (2010). The gender wage gap and domestic violence. American Economic Review, 100, 1847–1859. doi:10.1257/aer.100.4.1847CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Allen, J. P., Seitz, V., & Apfel, N. H. (2007). The sexually mature teen as a whole person: New directions in prevention and intervention for teen pregnancy and parenthood. In Aber, J. L., Bishop-Joseph, S. J., Jones, S., McLearn, K. T. & Phillips, D. (Eds.), Child development and social policy: Knowledge for action (pp. 185–199). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.10.1037/11486-011CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Almond, D. (2006). Is the 1918 influenza pandemic over? Long-term effects of in utero influenza exposure in the post-1940 US population. Journal of Political Economy, 114, 672–712. doi:10.1086/507154CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anacker, C., Zunszain, P. A., Cattaneo, A., Carvalho, L. A., Garabedian, M. J., Thuret, S., … Pariante, C. M. (2011). Antidepressants increase human hippocampal neurogenesis by activating the glucocorticoid receptor. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(7), 738–750. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.26CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Andersen, S. L., & Teicher, M. H. (2008). Stress, sensitive periods and maturational events in adolescent depression. Trends in Neurosciences, 31, 183–191. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2008.01.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Apfel, N. H., & Seitz, V. (1991). Four models of adolescent mother-grandmother relationships in black inner-city families. Family Relations, 40, 421–429. doi:10.2307/584899CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arnsten, A. F. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 410–422. doi:10.1038/nrn2648CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Asnong, C., Fellmeth, G., Plugge, E., San Wai, N., Pimanpanarak, M., Paw, M. K., … McGready, R. (2018). Adolescents’ perceptions and experiences of pregnancy in refugee and migrant communities on the Thailand-Myanmar border: A qualitative study. BMC Reproductive Health, 15, 83. doi:10.1186/s12978-018-0522-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Mesman, J., Alink, L. R., & Juffer, F. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on daily cortisol moderated by dopamine receptor D4: A randomized control trial on 1- to 3-year-olds screened for externalizing behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 805–820. doi:10.1017/s0954579408000382CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barry, M. M., Clarke, A. M., Jenkins, R., & Patel, V. (2013). A systematic review of the effectiveness of mental health promotion interventions for young people in low and middle income countries. BMC Public Health, 13, 835. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-835CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Beegle, K., Frankenberg, E., & Thomas, D. (2001). Bargaining power within couples and use of prenatal and delivery care in Indonesia. Studies in Family Planning, 32, 130–146. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2001.00130.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bell, M. A., & Deater-Deckard, K. (2007). Biological systems and the development of self-regulation: Integrating behavior, genetics, and psychophysiology. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 28, 409–420. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/DBP.0b013e3181131fc7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betancourt, T. S., Borisova, I., Williams, T. P., Meyers-Ohki, S. E., Rubin-Smith, J. E., Annan, J., & Kohrt, B. A. (2013). Psychosocial adjustment and mental health in former child soldiers: Systematic review of the literature and recommendations for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 17–36. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02620.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Betancourt, T. S., & Khan, K. T. (2008). The mental health of children affected by armed conflict: Protective processes and pathways to resilience. International Review of Psychiatry, 20, 317–328. doi:10.1080/09540260802090363CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blakemore, S. J., & Mills, K. L. (2014). Is adolescence a sensitive period for sociocultural processing? Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 187–207. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115202CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Britto, P. R., Engle, P. L., & Super, C. M. (2013). Handbook of early childhood development research and its impact on global policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199922994.001.0001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Britto, P. R., Lye, S. J., Proulx, K., Yousafzai, A. K., Matthews, S. G., Vaivada, T., … Bhutta, Z. A. (2017b). Nurturing care: Promoting early childhood development. The Lancet, 389, 91–102. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31390-3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Britto, P. R., Lye, S. J., Proulx, K., Yousafzai, A. K., Matthews, S. G., Vaivada, T., … Fernald, L. C. (2017a). Nurturing care: promoting early childhood development. The Lancet, 389, 91–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model of human development. In Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M. (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development (6th ed., Vol. 1, pp. 793–828). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Burde, D., Kapit, A., Wahl, R. L., Guven, O., & Skarpeteig, M. I. (2016). Education in emergencies: A review of theory and research. Review of Educational Research, 87, 619–658. doi:10.3102/0034654316671594CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Byrne, M. L., Whittle, S., Vijayakumar, N., Dennison, M., Simmons, J. G., & Allen, N. B. (2017). A systematic review of adrenarche as a sensitive period in neurobiological development and mental health. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 25, 12–28. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2016.12.004CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cao-Lei, L., Elgbeili, G., Massart, R., Laplante, D. P., Szyf, M., & King, S. (2015). Pregnant women's cognitive appraisal of a natural disaster affects DNA methylation in their children 13 years later: Project Ice Storm. Translational Psychiatry, 5, e515. doi:10.1038/tp.2015.13CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cao-Lei, L., Massart, R., Suderman, M. J., Machnes, Z., Elgbeili, G., Laplante, D. P., … King, S. (2014). DNA methylation signatures triggered by prenatal maternal stress exposure to a natural disaster: Project Ice Storm. PLoS One, 9, e107653. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107653CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Casey, B. J., Getz, S., & Galvan, A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Developmental Review, 28, 62–77. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2007.08.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Causadias, J. M., Telzer, E. H., & Gonzales, N. A. (2018). The handbook of culture and biology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Charil, A., Laplante, D. P., Vaillancourt, C., & King, S. (2010). Prenatal stress and brain development. Brain Research Reviews, 65, 56–79. doi:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2010.06.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chase-Lansdale, P. L., Sabol, T. J., Sommer, T. E., Chor, E., Cooperman, A. W., Brooks-Gunn, J., … Morris, A. (2019). Effects of a two-generation human capital program on low-income parents’ education, employment, and psychological wellbeing. Journal of Family Psychology, 33, 433. doi:10.1037/fam0000517CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, E., & Miller, G. E. (2012). Socioeconomic status and health: Mediating and moderating factors. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 723–749. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185634CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chiao, J. Y., Li, S.-C., Seligman, R., & Turner, R. (2016). The Oxford handbook of cultural neuroscience. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Choudhury, S. (2009). Culturing the adolescent brain: What can neuroscience learn from anthropology? Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 5, 159–167. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp030CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D. (2010). Resilience under conditions of extreme stress: A multilevel perspective. World Psychiatry, 9, 145–154. doi:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00297.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., & Gunnar, M. R. (2008). Integrating biological measures into the design and evaluation of preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 737–743. doi:10.1017/S0954579408000357CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Toth, S. L., & Sturge-Apple, M. L. (2011). Normalizing the development of cortisol regulation in maltreated infants through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 789–800. doi:10.1017/s0954579411000307CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conde-Agudelo, A., Belizan, J. M., & Lammers, C. (2005). Maternal-perinatal morbidity and mortality associated with adolescent pregnancy in Latin America: Cross-sectional study. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 192, 342–349. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2004.10.593CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Côté, J. E. (2009). Identity formation and self-development in adolescence. In Lerner, R. M., & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 266–304). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012). Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13, 636. doi:10.1038/nrn3313CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dahl, R. E., & Gunnar, M. R. (2009). Heightened stress responsiveness and emotional reactivity during pubertal maturation: Implications for psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 1–6. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000017CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Debiec, J., & Sullivan, R. M. (2014). Intergenerational transmission of emotional trauma through amygdala-dependent mother-to-infant transfer of specific fear. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111, 12222–12227. doi:10.1073/pnas.1316740111CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Desrosiers, A., Betancourt, T., Kergoat, Y., Servilli, C., Say, L., & Kobeissi, L. (2020). A systematic review of sexual and reproductive health interventions for young people in humanitarian and lower-and-middle-income country settings. BMC Public Health, 20, 1–21. doi:10.1186/s12889-020-08818-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dillon, M. E., & Cherry, A. L. (2014). An international perspective on adolescent pregnancy. New York, NY: Springer.10.1007/978-1-4899-8026-7_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DiPietro, J. A. (2012). Maternal stress in pregnancy: Considerations for fetal development. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51, S3–S8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.04.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dipietro, J. A., Costigan, K. A., & Sipsma, H. L. (2008). Continuity in self-report measures of maternal anxiety, stress, and depressive symptoms from pregnancy through two years postpartum. Journal of Psychosomatic Obstetrics & Gynecology, 29, 115–124. doi:10.1080/01674820701701546CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duryea, S. (2016). Redefining families: Realities and perspectives. Retrieved from https://blogs.iadb.org/desarrollo-infantil/en/family/ (accessed June 21 2020).Google Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Morris, A. S., McDaniel, B., & Spinrad, T. L. (2009). Moral cognitions and prosocial responding in adolescence. In Lerner, R. M., & Steinberg, L. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 229–265). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Ekéus, C., Christensson, K., & Hjern, A. (2004). Unintentional and violent injuries among pre-school children of teenage mothers in Sweden: A national cohort study. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 58, 680–685. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech.2003.015255CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elster, A. B. (1984). The effect of maternal age, parity, and prenatal care on perinatal outcome in adolescent mothers. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 149, 845–847. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(84)90602-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Erulkar, A., & Tamrat, T. (2014). Evaluation of a reproductive health program to support married adolescent girls in rural Ethiopia. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 18, 68–76.Google ScholarPubMed
Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2013). Childhood poverty, chronic stress, self-regulation, and coping. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 43–48. doi:10.1111/cdep.12013CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fatori, D., Argeu, A., Brentani, H., Chiesa, A., Fracolli, L., Matijasevich, A., … Polanczyk, G. (2020). Maternal parenting electronic diary in the context of a home visit intervention for adolescent mothers in an urban deprived area of São Paulo, Brazil: Randomized controlled trial. JMIR mHealth and uHealth, 8, e13686. doi:10.2196/13686CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fraser, A. M., Brockert, J. E., & Ward, R. H. (1995). Association of young maternal age with adverse reproductive outcomes. New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 1113–1117. doi:10.1056/nejm199504273321701CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fuhrmann, D., Knoll, L. J., & Blakemore, S. J. (2015). Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development. Trends in Cognitive Science, 19, 558–556. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Furstenberg, F. F. Jr, Brooks-Gunn, J., & Morgan, S. P. (1987). Adolescent mothers in later life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garcia Coll, C., Vohr, B. R., Hoffman, J., & Oh, W. (1986). Maternal and environmental factors affecting developmental outcome of infants of adolescent mothers. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 7, 230–236. doi:10.1097/00004703-198608000-00003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Garmezy, N., & Masten, A. S. (1986). Stress, competence, and resilience: Common frontiers for therapist and psychopathologist. Behavior Therapy, 17, 500–521. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(86)80091-0CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grey, K. R., Davis, E. P., Sandman, C. A., & Glynn, L. M. (2013). Human milk cortisol is associated with infant temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 38, 1178–1185. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.11.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., & Quevedo, K. M. (2008). Early care experiences and HPA axis regulation in children: A mechanism for later trauma vulnerability. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 137–149. doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(07)67010-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gunnar, M. R., Wewerka, S., Frenn, K., Long, J. D., & Griggs, C. (2009). Developmental changes in hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal activity over the transition to adolescence: Normative changes and associations with puberty. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 69–85. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000054CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Handa, S., Peterman, A., Huang, C., Halpern, C., Pettifor, A., & Thirumurthy, H. (2015). Impact of the Kenya cash transfer for orphans and vulnerable children on early pregnancy and marriage of adolescent girls. Social Science & Medicine, 141, 36–45.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hare, T. A., Tottenham, N., Galvan, A., Voss, H. U., Glover, G. H., & Casey, B. J. (2008). Biological substrates of emotional reactivity and regulation in adolescence during an emotional go-nogo task. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 927–934. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.03.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastings, P. D., Kahle, S., Fleming, C., Lohr, M. J., Katz, L. F., & Oxford, M. L. (2019). An intervention that increases parental sensitivity in families referred to Child Protective Services also changes toddlers’ parasympathetic regulation. Developmental Science, 22, e12725. doi:10.1111/desc.12725CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466(7302), 29. doi:10.1038/466029aCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hinton, D. E., Kredlow, M. A., Bui, E., Pollack, M. H., & Hofmann, S. G. (2012). Treatment change of somatic symptoms and cultural syndromes among Cambodian refugees with PTSD. Depression and Anxiety, 29, 148–155. doi:10.1002/da.20905CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hosie, A., & Selman, P. (2006). Teenage pregnancy and social exclusion: An exploration of disengagement and reengagement from the education system. In Holgate, H., Evans, R. & Yuen, F. K. (Eds.), Teenage pregnancy and parenthood: Global perspectives, issues and interventions (pp. 72–88). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Huang, C.-C., & Lee, I. (2008). The first-three years of parenting: Evidence from the fragile families and child well-being study. Children and Youth Services Review, 30, 1447–1457.10.1016/j.childyouth.2008.05.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hurd, N. M., & Zimmerman, M. A. (2010). Natural mentoring relationships among adolescent mothers: A study of resilience. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 20, 789–809. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00660.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jordans, M. J., Pigott, H., & Tol, W. A. (2016). Interventions for children affected by armed conflict: A systematic review of mental health and psychosocial support in low-and middle-income countries. Current Psychiatry Reports, 18, 9. doi:10.1007/s11920-015-0648-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juster, R. P., McEwen, B. S., & Lupien, S. J. (2010). Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 2–16. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.002CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Juster, R. P., Sindi, S., Marin, M. F., Perna, A., Hashemi, A., Pruessner, J. C., & Lupien, S. J. (2011). A clinical allostatic load index is associated with burnout symptoms and hypocortisolemic profiles in healthy workers. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 797–805. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.11.001CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kabeer, N. (1997). Women, wages and intra-household power relations in urban Bangladesh. Development and Change, 28, 261–302. doi:10.1111/1467-7660.00043CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kertes, D. A., Kamin, H. S., Hughes, D. A., Rodney, N. C., Bhatt, S., & Mulligan, C. J. (2016). Prenatal maternal stress predicts methylation of genes regulating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical system in mothers and newborns in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Child Development, 87, 61–72. doi:10.1111/cdev.12487CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kidger, J. (2006). Sisters doing it for themselves: Young mothers as peer educators in school-based sex education. In Holgate, H., Evans, R. & Yuen, F. K. (Eds.), Teenage pregnancy and parenthood: Global perspectives, issues and interventions (pp. 106–121). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
King, S., & Laplante, D. P. (2015). Using natural disasters to study prenatal maternal stress in humans. Advances in Neurobiology, 10, 285–313. doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-1372-5_14CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knerr, W., Gardner, F., & Cluver, L. (2013). Improving positive parenting skills and reducing harsh and abusive parenting in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Prevention Science, 14, 352–363. doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0314-1CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohrt, B. A., Hruschka, D. J., Worthman, C. M., Kunz, R. D., Baldwin, J. L., Upadhaya, N., … Tol, W. A. (2012). Political violence and mental health in Nepal: Prospective study. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 201, 268–275. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.111.096222CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohrt, B. A., Jordans, M. J., Tol, W. A., Perera, E., Karki, R., Koirala, S., & Upadhaya, N. (2010). Social ecology of child soldiers: Child, family, and community determinants of mental health, psychosocial well-being, and reintegration in Nepal. Transcultural Psychiatry, 47, 727–753. doi:10.1177/1363461510381290CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohrt, B. A., Kunz, R. D., Baldwin, J. L., Koirala, N. R., Sharma, V. D., & Nepal, M. K. (2005). “Somatization” and “comorbidity”: A study of jhum-jhum and depression in rural Nepal. Ethos, 33, 125–147. doi:10.1525/eth.2005.33.1.125CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohrt, B. A., & Worthman, C. M. (2009). Gender and anxiety in Nepal: The role of social support, stressful life events, and structural violence. CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics, 15, 237–248.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kohrt, B. A., Worthman, C. M., Adhikari, R. P., Luitel, N. P., Arevalo, J. M., Ma, J., … Cole, S. W. (2016). Psychological resilience and the gene regulatory impact of posttraumatic stress in Nepali child soldiers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113, 8156–8161. doi:10.1073/pnas.1601301113CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lam, L. L., Emberly, E., Fraser, H. B., Neumann, S. M., Chen, E., Miller, G. E., & Kobor, M. S. (2012). Factors underlying variable DNA methylation in a human community cohort. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, (Suppl 2), 17253–17260. doi:10.1073/pnas.1121249109CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lancaster, J. B., & Hamburg, B. A. (2008). The biosocial dimensions of school-age pregnancy and parenthood: An introduction. In Lancaster, J. B. & Hamburg, B. A. (Eds.), School-age pregnancy and parenthood: Biosocial dimensions (pp. 3–13). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Laurenzi, C. A., Gordon, S., Abrahams, N., du Toit, S., Bradshaw, M., Brand, A., … Servili, C. (2020). Psychosocial interventions targeting mental health in pregnant adolescents and adolescent parents: A systematic review. Reproductive Health, 17, 1–15. doi:10.1186/s12978-020-00913-yCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leadbeater, B. J. R., & Way, N. (2001). Growing up fast: Transitions to early adulthood of inner-city adolescent mothers. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.10.4324/9781410601834CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, W., Carr, M., Soutar, B., & Mitch, L. (2013). Understanding the Te Whāriki approach: Early years education in practice. New York, NY: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lumey, L. H., Stein, A. D., Kahn, H. S., van der Pal-de Bruin, K. M., Blauw, G. J., Zybert, P. A., & Susser, E. S. (2007). Cohort profile: the Dutch Hunger Winter families study. International Journal of Epidemiology, 36, 1196–1204. doi:10.1093/ije/dym126CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lundberg, M., & Wuermli, A. J. (eds.). (2012). Children and youth in crisis: Protecting and promoting human development in times of economic shocks. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupien, S. J., Maheu, F., Tu, M., Fiocco, A., & Schramek, T. E. (2007). The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition. Brain and Cognition, 65, 209–237. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2007.02.007CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lupien, S. J., McEwen, B. S., Gunnar, M. R., & Heim, C. (2009). Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 434–445. doi:10.1038/nrn2639CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S. (1993). Methodological and conceptual issues in research on childhood resilience. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 441–453. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1993.tb01030.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luthar, S. S., & Zigler, E. (1991). Vulnerability and competence: A review of research on resilience in childhood. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 61, 6–22. doi:10.1037/h0079218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Malter Cohen, M., Tottenham, N., & Casey, B. J. (2013). Translational developmental studies of stress on brain and behavior: Implications for adolescent mental health and illness? Neuroscience, 249, 53–62. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.01.023CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S. (2019). Resilience from a developmental systems perspective. World Psychiatry, 18, 101. doi:10.1002/wps.20591CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Narayan, A. J. (2012). Child development in the context of disaster, war, and terrorism: Pathways of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 227–257. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100356CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Masten, A. S., & Wright, M. O. D. (2010). Resilience over the lifespan: Developmental perspectives on resistance, recovery, and transformation. In Masten, A. S. & Wright, M. O. D. (Eds.), Handbook of adult resilience (pp. 213–237). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
McCormick, C. M., Mathews, I. Z., Thomas, C., & Waters, P. (2010). Investigations of HPA function and the enduring consequences of stressors in adolescence in animal models. Brain and Cognition, 72, 73–85. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S. (2017). Allostasis and the epigenetics of brain and body health over the life course: The brain on stress. Journal of the American Medical Association Psychiatry, 74, 551–552.Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S., & Magarinos, A. M. (2001). Stress and hippocampal plasticity: Implications for the pathophysiology of affective disorders. Human Psychopharmacology, 16, S7–S19. doi:10.1002/hup.266CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43, 2–15. doi:10.1016/s0018-506x(02)00024-7CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McEwen, B. S., & Wingfield, J. C. (2007). Allostasis and allostatic load. In Fink, G. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of stress (2nd ed., pp. 135–141). New York, NY: Academic Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McQueston, K., Silverman, R., & Glassman, A. (2013). The efficacy of interventions to reduce adolescent childbearing in low-and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Studies in Family Planning, 44, 369–388. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00365.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Melnikas, A. J., Ainul, S., Ehsan, I., Haque, E., & Amin, S. (2020). Child marriage practices among the Rohingya in Bangladesh. Conflict and Health, 14, 1–12. doi:10.1186/s13031-020-00274-0CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., Fok, A. K., Walker, H., Lim, A., Nicholls, E. F., … Kobor, M. S. (2009). Low early-life social class leaves a biological residue manifested by decreased glucocorticoid and increased proinflammatory signaling. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 14716–14721. doi:10.1073/pnas.0902971106CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mills-Koonce, W. R., Propper, C., Gariepy, J. L., Barnett, M., Moore, G. A., Calkins, S., & Cox, M. J. (2009). Psychophysiological correlates of parenting behavior in mothers of young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 650–661. doi:10.1002/dev.20400CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitra, R., Jadhav, S., McEwen, B. S., Vyas, A., & Chattarji, S. (2005). Stress duration modulates the spatiotemporal patterns of spine formation in the basolateral amygdala. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(26), 9371–9376. doi:10.1073/pnas.0504011102CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Motta, A., & Yoshikawa, H. (2018). Progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 4 in a culturally diverse world: The experience of Modalidad Propia in Colombia. In Verma, S. & Petersen, A. C. (Eds.), Developmental science and sustainable development goals for children and youth (pp. 59–75). Cham: Springer International.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, K. M., Rodrigues, K., Costigan, J., & Annan, J. (2017). Raising children in conflict: An integrative model of parenting in war. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 23, 46. doi:10.1037/pac0000195CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murphy, K. M., Yoshikawa, H., & Wuermli, A. J. (2018). Implementation research for early childhood development programming in humanitarian contexts. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1419, 90–101. doi:10.1111/nyas.13691CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Natsuaki, M. N., Klimes-Dougan, B., Ge, X., Shirtcliff, E. A., Hastings, P. D., & Zahn-Waxler, C. (2009). Early pubertal maturation and internalizing problems in adolescence: Sex differences in the role of cortisol reactivity to interpersonal stress. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 38, 513–524. doi:10.1080/15374410902976320CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nederhof, E., Marceau, K., Shirtcliff, E. A., Hastings, P. D., & Oldehinkel, A. J. (2015). Autonomic and adrenocortical interactions predict mental health in late adolescence: The TRAILS Study. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 847–861. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9958-6CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nelson, C. A., 3rd, Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Marshall, P. J., Smyke, A. T., & Guthrie, D. (2007). Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science, 318, 1937–1940. doi:10.1126/science.1143921CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nyirenda, M. (2006). Prenatal glucocorticoid exposure and physiological programming of adult disease. Expert Review of Endocrinology, 1, 391–402. doi:10.1586/17446651.1.3.391CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Panter-Brick, C., & Eggerman, M. (2012). Understanding culture, resilience, and mental health: The production of hope. In Ungar, M. (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience: A handbook of theory and practice (pp. 369–386). New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pesonen, A.-K., Räikkönen, K., Strandberg, T. E., & Järvenpää, A.-L. (2005). Continuity of maternal stress from the pre- to the postnatal period: associations with infant's positive, negative and overall temperamental reactivity. Infant Behavior and Development, 28, 36–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2004.09.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Petersen, A. C. (1988). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 39, 583–607. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.39.020188.003055CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raj, A., McDougal, L., Silverman, J. G., & Rusch, M. L. (2014). Cross-sectional time series analysis of associations between education and girl child marriage in Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan, 1991-2011. PLoS One, 9, e106210. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106210CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richards, E., Theobald, S., George, A., Kim, J. C., Rudert, C., Jehan, K., & Tolhurst, R. (2013). Going beyond the surface: Gendered intra-household bargaining as a social determinant of child health and nutrition in low and middle income countries. Social Science & Medicine, 95, 24–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.06.015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M. (2013). Annual Research Review: Resilience - clinical implications. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 474–487. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02615.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schriber, R. A., & Guyer, A. E. (2016). Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 19, 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seitz, V., & Apfel, N. H. (1993). Adolescent mothers and repeated childbearing: Effects of a school-based intervention program. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 63, 572–581.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seitz, V., & Apfel, N. H. (1994). Parent-focused intervention: Diffusion effects on siblings. Child Development, 65, 677–683. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00776.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Seitz, V., Rosenbaum, L. K., & Apfel, N. H. (1985). Effects of family support intervention: A ten-year follow-up. Child Development, 56, 376–391. doi:10.2307/1129727CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sheppard, P., & Sear, R. (2016). Do grandparents compete with or support their grandchildren? In Guatemala, paternal grandmothers may compete, and maternal grandmothers may cooperate. Royal Society Open Science, 3, 160069. doi:10.1098/rsos.160069CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shonkoff, J. P. (2012). Leveraging the biology of adversity to address the roots of disparities in health and development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, (Suppl 2), 17302–17307. doi:10.1073/pnas.1121259109CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singla, D. R., Waqas, A., Hamdani, S. U., Suleman, N., Zafar, S. W., Saeed, K., … Rahman, A. (2019). Implementation and effectiveness of adolescent life skills programs in low-and middle-income countries: A critical review and meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 130, 103402. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2019.04.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sirin, S. R., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2015). The educational and mental health needs of Syrian refugee children. Young children in refugee families. Washington, DC: Migration Policy Institute.Google Scholar
Slone, M., & Mann, S. (2016). Effects of war, terrorism and armed conflict on young children: A systematic review. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 47, 950–965. doi:10.1007/s10578-016-0626-7CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sommer, M. (2010). Where the education system and women's bodies collide: The social and health impact of girls’ experiences of menstruation and schooling in Tanzania. Journal of Adolescence, 33, 521–529. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.03.008CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Speer, P. W. (2008). Altering patterns of relationship and participation: Youth organizing as a setting-level intervention. In Shinn, B. & Yoshikawa, H. (Eds.), Toward positive youth development: Transforming schools and community programs (pp. 213–228). Oxford: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., Carlson, E. A., & Collins, W. A. (2005). The development of the person: The Minnesota study of risk and adaptation from birth to adulthood. New York, NY: Guilford Publications.Google Scholar
Steinberg, L. (2005). Cognitive and affective development in adolescence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 69–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stroud, L. R., Foster, E., Papandonatos, G. D., Handwerger, K., Granger, D. A., Kivlighan, K. T., & Niaura, R. (2009). Stress response and the adolescent transition: Performance versus peer rejection stressors. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 47. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000042CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Super, C. M., & Harkness, S. (1986). The developmental niche: A conceptualization at the interface of child and culture. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 9, 545–569. doi:10.1177/016502548600900409CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Theron, L., Liebenberg, L., & Ungar, M. (2015). Youth resilience and culture. New York, NY: Springer.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tol, W. A., Song, S., & Jordans, M. J. (2013a). Annual research review: Resilience and mental health in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict – a systematic review of findings in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 445–460. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12053CrossRefGoogle Scholar
UNFPA. (2018). New Ebola outbreak hists women and girls hardest in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Retrieved from https://www.unfpa.org/news/new-ebola-outbreak-hits-women-and-girls-hardest-democratic-republic-congo (accessed April 28 2020).Google Scholar
UNHCR. (2019). Figures at a glance. Retrieved from https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/figures-at-a-glance.html (accessed June 22 2020).Google Scholar
UNICEF. (2019). Fast Facts: 10 facts illustrating why we must #EndChildMarriage. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/eca/press-releases/fast-facts-10-facts-illustrating-why-we-must-endchildmarriage (accessed June 21 2020).Google Scholar
Urindwanayo, D., & Richter, S. (2020). Teenage pregnancy in refugee camps: A narrative synthesis. Journal of International Women's Studies, 21, 255–270.Google Scholar
Ursache, A., Noble, K. G., & Blair, C. (2015). Socioeconomic status, subjective social status, and perceived stress: Associations with stress physiology and executive functioning. Behavioral Medicine, 41, 145–154. doi:10.1080/08964289.2015.1024604CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vaillant, J., Koussoubé, E., Roth, D., Pierotti, R., Hossain, M., & Falb, K. L. (2020). Engaging men to transform inequitable gender attitudes and prevent intimate partner violence: A cluster randomised controlled trial in North and South Kivu, Democratic Republic of Congo. BMJ Global Health, 5, e002223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-002223CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Viau, V. (2002). Functional cross-talk between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal and-adrenal axes. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 14, 506–513. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2002.00798.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waddoups, A. B., Yoshikawa, H., & Strouf, K. (2019). Developmental effects of parent–child separation. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 387–410. doi:10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-085142CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waters, S. F., West, T. V., & Mendes, W. B. (2014). Stress contagion: Physiological covariation between mothers and infants. Psychological Science, 25, 934–942. doi:10.1177/0956797613518352CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weisner, T. S. (2002). Ecocultural understanding of children's developmental pathways. Human Development, 45, 275–281. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000064989CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weissman, D. G., Conger, R. D., Robins, R. W., Hastings, P. D., & Guyer, A. E. (2018). Income change alters default mode network connectivity for adolescents in poverty. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 30, 93–99.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiting, B. B. (1980). Culture and social behavior: A model for the development of social behavior. Ethos, 8, 95–116.10.1525/eth.1980.8.2.02a00010CrossRefGoogle Scholar
WHO. (2014). Adolescent pregnancy. Fact sheet No. 364. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs364/en/ (accessed January 10 2015).Google Scholar
WHO. (2020). Fact sheet: Adolescent pregnancy. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-pregnancy (accessed June 21 2020).Google Scholar
Wierenga, L. M., Bos, M. G., Schreuders, E., vd Kamp, F., Peper, J. S., Tamnes, C. K., & Crone, E. A. (2018). Unraveling age, puberty and testosterone effects on subcortical brain development across adolescence. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 91, 105–114. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.02.034CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Worthman, C. M. (2010). The ecology of human development: evolving models for cultural psychology. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 41, 546–562. doi:10.1177/0022022110362627CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Worthman, C. M. (2019). Shared and local pathways in suffering and resilience: Keeping the body in mind. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56, 775–785. doi:10.1177/1363461519862700CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Worthman, C. M., & Costello, E. J. (2009). Tracking biocultural pathways in population health: The value of biomarkers. Annals of Human Biology, 36, 281–297. doi:10.1080/03014460902832934CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Worthman, C. M., & Trang, K. (2018). Dynamics of body time, social time and life history at adolescence. Nature, 554, 451–457. doi:10.1038/nature25750CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wuermli, A. J., Tubbs, C. C., Petersen, A. C., & Aber, J. L. (2015). Children and youth in low- and middle-income countries: Toward an integrated developmental and intervention science. Child Development Perspectives, 9, 61–66. doi:10.1111/cdep.12108CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wuermli, A. J., & Yoshikawa, H. (2016). Dual-generation approaches to adolescent motherhood and human development in the context of economic downturns and poverty in low- and middle-income countries. In Petersen, A. C., Koller, S. H., Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Verma, S. (Eds.), Positive youth development in global contexts of social and economic change (pp. 222–246). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Yakubu, I., & Salisu, W. J. (2018). Determinants of adolescent pregnancy in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Reproductive Health, 15, 15. doi:10.1186/s12978-018-0460-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.28CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yoshikawa, H., Wuermli, A. J., & Aber, J. L. (2018). Mitigating the impact of forced displacement and refugee unauthorized status on youth. In Suárez-Orozco, M. M. (Ed.), Humanitarianism and mass migration: Confronting the world crisis (pp. 186–206). Oakland, CA: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshikawa, H., Wuermli, A. J., Britto, P. R., Dreyer, B., Leckman, J. F., Lye, S. J., … Stein, A. (2020). Effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic on early childhood development: Short- and long-term risks and mitigating program and policy actions. Journal of Pediatrics, 223, 188–193. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2020.05.020CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yoshikawa, H., & Zigler, E. (2000). Mental health in Head Start: New directions for the twenty-first century. Early Education and Development, 11, 247–264. doi:10.1207/s15566935eed1103_2CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yount, K. M., Krause, K. H., & Miedema, S. S. (2017). Preventing gender-based violence victimization in adolescent girls in lower-income countries: Systematic review of reviews. Social Science & Medicine, 192, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.08.038CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zhang, C., Fong, V. L., Yoshikawa, H., Way, N., Chen, X., & Lu, Z. (2019). The rise of maternal grandmother child care in urban Chinese families. Journal of Marriage and Family, 81, 1174–1191. doi:10.1111/jomf.12598CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zigler, E. F., & Muenchow, S. (1992). Head Start: The inside story of America's most successful educational experiment. New York, NY: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Zigler, E., & Seitz, V. (1980). Early childhood intervention programs: A reanalysis. School Psychology Review, 9, 354–368. doi:10.1080/02796015.1980.12086573CrossRefGoogle Scholar