Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-24T15:36:49.818Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The development of the cortisol response to dyadic stressors in Black and White infants

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 October 2018

Andrew Dismukes ,
Elizabeth Shirtcliff ,
Christopher W. Jones ,
Charles Zeanah ,
Katherine Theall  and
Stacy Drury
Andrew Dismukes
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
Elizabeth Shirtcliff
Affiliation:
Iowa State University
Christopher W. Jones
Affiliation:
Tulane University
Charles Zeanah
Affiliation:
Tulane University
Katherine Theall
Affiliation:
Tulane University
Stacy Drury*
Affiliation:
Tulane University
*
Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Stacy Drury, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Tulane University School of Medicine, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 1430 Tulane Ave., New Orleans, LA, 70112; E-mail: sdrury@tulane.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Acute reactivity of the stress hormone cortisol is reflective of early adversity and stress exposure, with some studies finding that the impact of adversity on the stress response differs by race. The objectives of the current study were to characterize cortisol reactivity to two dyadically based stress paradigms across the first year of life, to examine cortisol reactivity within Black and White infants, and to assess the impact of correlates of racial inequity including socioeconomic status, experiences of discrimination, and urban life stressors, as well as the buffering by racial socialization on cortisol patterns. Salivary cortisol reactivity was assessed at 4 months of age during the Still Face paradigm (N = 207) and at 12 months of age across the Strange Situation procedure (N = 129). Infants demonstrated the steepest recovery after the Still Face paradigm and steepest reactivity to the Strange Situation procedure. Race differences in cortisol were not present at 4 months but emerged at 12 months of age, with Black infants having higher cortisol. Experiences of discrimination contributed to cortisol differences within Black infants, suggesting that racial discrimination is already “under the skin” by 1 year of age. These findings suggest that race-related differences in hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal reactivity are present in infancy, and that the first year of life is a crucial time period during which interventions and prevention efforts for maternal–infant dyads are most likely able to shape hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal reactivity thereby mitigating health disparities early across the life course.

Type
Special Issue Articles
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 30 , Special Issue 5: Cultural Development and Psychopathology , December 2018 , pp. 1995 - 2008
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adam, E. K., Quinn, M. E., Tavernier, R., McQuillan, M. T., Dahlke, K. A., & Gilbert, K. E. (2017). Diurnal cortisol slopes and mental and physical health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 83, 25–41. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.05.018Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (2015). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. New York: Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Albers, E. M., Riksen-Walraven, J. M., Sweep, F. C. G. J., & de Weerth, C. (2008). Maternal behavior predicts infant cortisol recovery from a mild everyday stressor. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 49, 97–103. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01818.xGoogle Scholar
American Anthropological Association. (1998). AAA statement on race. Retrieved from http://www.americananthro.org/ConnectWithAAA/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2583Google Scholar
Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Bremner, J. D., Walker, J. D., Whitfield, C., Perry, B. D., & Giles, W. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood: A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256, 174–186. doi:10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4Google Scholar
Attar, B. K., Guerra, N. G., & Tolan, P. H. (1994). Neighborhood disadvantage, stressful life events and adjustments in urban elementary-school children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 23, 391–400. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2304_5Google Scholar
Barr, D. A. (2014). Health disparities in the United States: Social class, race, ethnicity, and health. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Bates, D., Maechler, M., & Bolker, B. (2012). lme4: linear mixed-effects models using S4 classes. R package version 0.999375-42. 2011.Google Scholar
Black, L. L., Johnson, R., & VanHoose, L. (2015). The relationship between perceived racism/discrimination and health among Black American women: A review of the literature from 2003 to 2013. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 2, 11–20. doi:10.1007/s40615-014-0043-1Google Scholar
Bowlby, J. (2008). A secure base: Parent-child attachment and healthy human development. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
Braveman, P. A., Cubbin, C., Egerter, S., Chideya, S., Marchi, K. S., Metzler, M., & Posner, S. (2005). Socioeconomic status in health research: One size does not fit all. Journal of the American Medical Association, 294, 2879–2888. doi:10.1001/jama.294.22.2879Google Scholar
Broderick, J., Brott, T., Kothari, R., Miller, R., Khoury, J., Pancioli, A., … Shukla, R. (1998). The greater Cincinnati/northern Kentucky stroke study. Stroke: A Journal of Cerebral Circulation, 29, 415–421. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.02.010Google Scholar
Brondolo, E. (2015). Racial and ethnic disparities in health: Examining the contexts that shape resilience and risk. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77, 2–5. doi:10.1097/PSY.0000000000000149Google Scholar
Brown, D. L. (2008). African American resiliency: Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology, 34, 32–48. doi:10.1177/0095798407310538Google Scholar
Burke, H. M., Davis, M. C., Otte, C., & Mohr, D. C. (2005). Depression and cortisol responses to psychological stress: A meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 846–856.Google Scholar
Case, A., & Deaton, A. (2015). Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 15078–15083. doi:10.1073/pnas.1518393112Google Scholar
Causadias, J. M. (2013). A roadmap for the integration of culture into developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4, Pt. 2), 1375–1398. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000679Google Scholar
Causadias, J. M., Telzer, E. H., & Lee, R. M. (2017). Culture and biology interplay: An introduction. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23, 1–4. doi:10.1037/cdp0000121Google Scholar
Chong, R. Y., Uhart, M., McCaul, M. E., Johnson, E., & Wand, G. S. (2008). Whites have a more robust hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to a psychological stressor than blacks. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 33, 246–254. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2007.10.014Google Scholar
Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805–816.Google Scholar
Cohen, S., Kessler, R. C., & Gordon, L. U. (1997). Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Cohen, S., Schwartz, J. E., Epel, E., Kirschbaum, C., Sidney, S., & Seeman, T. (2006). Socioeconomic status, race, and diurnal cortisol decline in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Psychosomatic Medicine, 68, 41–50. doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000195967.51768.eaGoogle Scholar
Del Giudice, M., Ellis, B. J., & Shirtcliff, E. A. (2011). The Adaptive Calibration Model of stress responsivity. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1562–1592. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007Google Scholar
DeSantis, A. S., Adam, E. K., Doane, L. D., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., & Craske, M. G. (2007). Racial/ethnic differences in cortisol diurnal rhythms in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 3–13. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.03.006Google Scholar
Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355–391. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.355Google Scholar
Doane, L. D., Sladek, M. R., & Adam, E. K. (2018). An introduction to cultural neurobiology: Evidence from physiological stress systems. In Causadias, J. M., Telzer, E. H., & Gonzales, N. A. (Eds.), Handbook of culture and biology (Vol. 1, pp. 227–254). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Epel, E., Lapidus, R., McEwen, B., & Brownell, K. (2001). Stress may add bite to appetite in women: A laboratory study of stress-induced cortisol and eating behavior. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26, 37–49.Google Scholar
Epel, E. S., McEwen, B., Seeman, T., Matthews, K., Castellazzo, G., Brownell, K. D., … Ickovics, J. R. (2000). Stress and body shape: Stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat. Psychosomatic Medicine, 62, 623–632.Google Scholar
Federal Reserve. (2018). Recent trends in wealth-holding by race and ethnicity: Evidence from the Survey of Consumer Finances. Retrieved April 19, 2018, from https://www.federalreserve.gov/econres/notes/feds-notes/recent-trends-in-wealth-holding-by-race-and-ethnicity-evidence-from-the-survey-of-consumer-finances-20170927.htmGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R. (2012). Parent-infant synchrony: A biobehavioral model of mutual influences in the formation of affiliative bonds. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 77, 42–51. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5834.2011.00660.xGoogle Scholar
Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2009). Biological and environmental initial conditions shape the trajectories of cognitive and social-emotional development across the first years of life. Developmental Science, 12, 194–200. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00761.xGoogle Scholar
Finch, W. H., Bolin, J. E., & Kelley, K. (2016). Multilevel modeling using R. Crc Press.Google Scholar
Fischer, A. R., & Shaw, C. M. (1999). African Americans’ mental health and perceptions of racist discrimination: The moderating effects of racial socialization experiences and self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 395. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.46.3.395Google Scholar
Gluck, M. E., Geliebter, A., & Lorence, M. (2004). Cortisol stress response is positively correlated with central obesity in obese women with binge eating disorder (BED) before and after cognitive-behavioral treatment. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 202–207. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.021Google Scholar
Goldmann, E., Aiello, A., Uddin, M., Delva, J., Koenen, K., Gant, L. M., & Galea, S. (2011). Pervasive exposure to violence and posttraumatic stress disorder in a predominantly African American urban community: The Detroit Neighborhood Health Study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24, 747–751. doi:10.1002/jts.20705Google Scholar
Gray, S. A. O., Jones, C. W., Theall, K. P., Glackin, E., & Drury, S. S. (2017). Thinking across generations: Unique contributions of maternal early life and prenatal stress to infant physiology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 56, 922–929. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.09.001Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Krueger, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996). Dampening of adrenocortical responses during infancy: Normative changes and individual differences. Child Development, 67, 877–889. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01770.xGoogle Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Brodersen, L., Nachmias, M., Buss, K., & Rigatuso, J. (1996). Stress reactivity and attachment security. Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 191–204. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2302(199604)29:3<191::AID-DEV1>3.0.CO;2-M3.0.CO;2-M>Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (2002). Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 27, 199–220. doi:10.1016/S0306-4530(01)00045-2Google Scholar
Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953–967. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.02.010Google Scholar
Hackman, D. A., Betancourt, L. M., Brodsky, N. L., Hurt, H., & Farah, M. J. (2012). Neighborhood disadvantage and adolescent stress reactivity. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 6, 277. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00277Google Scholar
Hajat, A., Diez-Roux, A., Franklin, T. G., Seeman, T., Shrager, S., Ranjit, N., … Kirschbaum, C. (2010). Socioeconomic and race/ethnic differences in daily salivary cortisol profiles: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 932–943. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.12.009Google Scholar
Haley, D. W., & Stansbury, K. (2003). Infant stress and parent responsiveness: Regulation of physiology and behavior during still-face and reunion. Child Development, 74, 1534–1546. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00621Google Scholar
Hamer, M., O'Donnell, K., Lahiri, A., & Steptoe, A. (2010). Salivary cortisol responses to mental stress are associated with coronary artery calcification in healthy men and women. European Heart Journal, 31, 424–429. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehp386Google Scholar
Harrell, C. J. P., Burford, T. I., Cage, B. N., Nelson, T. M., Shearon, S., Thompson, A., & Green, S. (2011). Multiple pathways linking racism to health outcomes. Du Bois Review, 8, 143–157. doi:10.1017/S1742058X11000178Google Scholar
Hartigan, J. (2010). Race in the 21st century: Ethnographic approaches. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Hasson, B. R., Apovian, C., & Istfan, N. (2015). Racial/ethnic differences in insulin resistance and beta cell function: Relationship to racial disparities in Type 2 diabetes among African Americans versus Caucasians. Current Obesity Reports, 4, 241–249. doi:10.1007/s13679-015-0150-2Google Scholar
Hertsgaard, L., Gunnar, M., Erickson, M. F., & Nachmias, M. (1995). Adrenocortical responses to the Strange Situation in infants with disorganized/disoriented attachment relationships. Child Development, 66, 1100. doi:10.2307/1131801Google Scholar
Hostinar, C. E., McQuillan, M. T., Mirous, H. J., Grant, K. E., & Adam, E. K. (2014). Cortisol responses to a group public speaking task for adolescents: Variations by age, gender, and race. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 155–166. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.015Google Scholar
Hughes, D., & Chen, L. (1997). When and what parents tell children about race: An examination of race-related socialization among African American families. Applied Developmental Science, 1, 200–214. doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0104_4Google Scholar
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006). Parents’ ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747–770. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747Google Scholar
Iceland, J., & Wilkes, R. (2006). Does socioeconomic status matter? Race, class, and residential segregation. Social Problems, 53, 248–273. doi:10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.248Google Scholar
Jaffee, K. D., Liu, G. C., Canty-Mitchell, J., Qi, R. A., Austin, J., & Swigonski, N. (2005). Race, urban community stressors, and behavioral and emotional problems of children with special health care needs. Psychiatric Services, 56, 63–69. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.56.1.63Google Scholar
Jansen, J., Beijers, R., Riksen-Walraven, M., & de Weerth, C. (2010). Cortisol reactivity in young infants. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 35, 329–338. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2009.07.008Google Scholar
Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: A theoretic framework and a gardener's tale. American Journal of Public Health, 90, 1212–1215.Google Scholar
Jorde, L. B., & Wooding, S. P. (2004). Genetic variation, classification, and “race.” Nature Genetics, 11, S28–S33.Google Scholar
Kochanek, K. D., Murphy, S. L., & Xu, J. (2015). Deaths: Final data for 2011. National Vital Statistics Reports, 63, 3. Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr63/nvsr63_03.pdfGoogle Scholar
Korous, K. M., Causadias, J. M., & Casper, D. M. (2017). Racial discrimination and cortisol output: A meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 193, 90–100. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.09.042Google Scholar
Kressin, N. R., Raymond, K. L., & Manze, M. (2008). Perceptions of race/ethnicity-based discrimination: A review of measures and evaluation of their usefulness for the health care setting. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 19, 697–730. doi:10.1353/hpu.0.0041Google Scholar
Krieger, N. (1990). Racial and gender discrimination: Risk factors for high blood pressure? Social Science & Medicine, 30, 1273–1281.Google Scholar
Krieger, N., Smith, K., Naishadham, D., Hartman, C., & Barbeau, E. M. (2005). Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Social Science & Medicine, 61, 1576–1596. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.03.006Google Scholar
Kurian, A. K., & Cardarelli, K. M. (2007). Racial and ethnic differences in cardiovascular disease risk factors: A systematic review. Ethnicity & Disease, 17, 143–152.Google Scholar
Levy, D. J., Heissel, J. A., Richeson, J. A., & Adam, E. K. (2016). Psychological and biological responses to race-based social stress as pathways to disparities in educational outcomes. American Psychologist, 71, 455–473. doi: 10.1037/a0040322Google Scholar
Lewis, M., & Ramsay, D. (2005). Infant emotional and cortisol responses to goal blockage. Child Development, 76(2), 518–530.Google Scholar
Lewis, M., Ramsay, D. S., & Kawakami, K. (1993). Differences between Japanese infants and Caucasian American infants in behavioral and cortisol response to inoculation. Child Development, 64, 1722–1731. doi:10.2307/1131465Google Scholar
Loman, M. M., Gunnar, M. R., & Early Experience, Stress, and Neurobehavioral Development Center. (2010). Early experience and the development of stress reactivity and regulation in children. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 867–876. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.05.007Google Scholar
Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 653–676. doi:10.1017/S0954579401003133Google Scholar
Maniam, J., Antoniadis, C., & Morris, M. J. (2014). Early-life stress, HPA axis adaptation, and mechanisms contributing to later health outcomes. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 5, 73. doi:10.3389/fendo.2014.00073Google Scholar
Martinez-Torteya, C., Muzik, M., McGinnis, E. W., Rosenblum, K. L., Bocknek, E. L., Beeghly, M., … Abelson, J. L. (2015). Longitudinal examination of infant baseline and reactivity cortisol from ages 7 to 16 months. Developmental Psychobiology, 57, 356–364. doi:10.1002/dev.21296Google Scholar
McEwen, B. S. (2004). Protection and damage from acute and chronic stress: Allostasis and allostatic overload and relevance to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1032, 1–7. doi:10.1196/annals.1314.001Google Scholar
Merritt, M. M., & Harrell, J. P. (1998). The relationships of somatic symptoms with coping strategies, life satisfaction and daily hassles. Psychosomatic Medicine, 60, 114.Google Scholar
Miller, D. B. (1999). Racial socialization and racial identity: Can they promote resiliency for African American adolescents? Adolescence, 34, 493–501.Google Scholar
Miller, D. B., & MacIntosh, R. (1999). Promoting resilience in urban African American adolescents: Racial socialization and identity as protective factors. Social Work Research, 23, 159–169. doi:10.1093/swr/23.3.159Google Scholar
Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25–45. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.25Google Scholar
Needham, B. L., Smith, J. A., Zhao, W., Wang, X., Mukherjee, B., Kardia, S. L. R., … Diez Roux, A. V. (2015). Life course socioeconomic status and DNA methylation in genes related to stress reactivity and inflammation: The multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Epigenetics, 10, 958–969. doi:10.1080/15592294.2015.1085139Google Scholar
Norris, F. H. (1992). Epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 409–418. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.60.3.409Google Scholar
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059Google Scholar
Phillips, A. C., Ginty, A. T., & Hughes, B. M. (2013). The other side of the coin: Blunted cardiovascular and cortisol reactivity are associated with negative health outcomes. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 90, 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.02.002Google Scholar
Pinheiro, J. C., & Bates, D. M. (2000). Mixed-effects models in S and S-PLUS. Statistics and Computing Series. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
R Core Team (2013). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. Retrievied from http://www.R-project.org/.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, J., Huntington-Moskos, L., Johnson, A., Williams, S., Gulledge, E., Feeley, C., & Rice, M. (2016). Collecting biological measures for research with children and adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 30, 279–283. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2015.12.007Google Scholar
Rosmond, R., & Björntorp, P. (2000). The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity as a predictor of cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and stroke. Journal of Internal Medicine, 247(2), 188–197.Google Scholar
Ross, M. G., & Desai, M. (2012). Developmental origins of adult health and disease. In Gabbe, S. G., Niebyl, J. R., Simpson, J. L., Landon, M. B., & Galan, H. L. (Eds.), Obstetrics: Normal and problem pregnancies (pp. 83–98). Philadelphia: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Sanders-Phillips, K. (1996). Correlates of health promotion behaviors in low-income Black women and Latinas. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12, 450–458. doi:10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30267-8Google Scholar
Schoenbaum, M., & Waidmann, T. (1997). Race, socioeconomic status, and health: Accounting for race differences in health. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 52, 61–73. doi:10.1093/geronb/52B.Special_Issue.61Google Scholar
Sen, M., & Wasow, O. (2016). Race as a bundle of sticks: Designs that estimate effects of seemingly immutable characteristics. Annual Review of Political Science, 19, 499–522. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-032015-010015Google Scholar
Skinner, M. L., Shirtcliff, E. A., Haggerty, K. P., Coe, C. L., & Catalano, R. F. (2011). Allostasis model facilitates understanding race differences in the diurnal cortisol rhythm. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1167–1186. doi:10.1017/S095457941100054XGoogle Scholar
Stevenson, H. C., & Arrington, E. G. (2009). Racial/ethnic socialization mediates perceived racism and the racial identity of African American adolescents. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 125–136. doi:10.1037/a0015500Google Scholar
Susman, E. J., Dorn, L. D., Inoff-Germain, G., Nottelmann, E. D., & Chrousos, G. P. (1997). Cortisol reactivity, distress behavior, and behavioral and psychological problems in young adolescents: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7, 81–105. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0701_5Google Scholar
Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632–639. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.010Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E. (2010). Mechanisms linking early life stress to adult health outcomes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 8507–8512. doi:10.1073/pnas.1003890107Google Scholar
Theall, K. P., Shirtcliff, E. A., Dismukes, A. R., Wallace, M., & Drury, S. S. (2017). Association between neighborhood violence and biological stress in children. JAMA Pediatrics, 171, 53–60. doi:10.1001/jamapediatrics.2016.2321Google Scholar
Tronick, E., Als, H., Adamson, L., Wise, S., & Brazelton, T. B. (1978). The infant's response to entrapment between contradictory messages in face-to-face interaction. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 17, 1–13. doi:10.1016/S0002-7138(09)62273-1Google Scholar
Valencia, R. R. (2010). Dismantling contemporary deficit thinking: Educational thought and practice. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
van Bakel, H. J. A., & Riksen-Walraven, J. M. (2004). Stress reactivity in 15-month-old infants: links with infant temperament, cognitive competence, and attachment security. Developmental Psychobiology, 44(3), 157–167.Google Scholar
Wagner, J., Lampert, R., Tennen, H., & Feinn, R. (2015). Exposure to discrimination and heart rate variability reactivity to acute stress among women with diabetes. Stress and Health, 31, 255–262. doi:10.1002/smi.2542Google Scholar
Walker, B. R. (2007). Glucocorticoids and cardiovascular disease. European Journal of Endocrinology / European Federation of Endocrine Societies, 157(5), 545–559.Google Scholar
Wilcox, S., Bopp, M., Wilson, D. K., Fulk, L. J., & Hand, G. A. (2005). Race differences in cardiovascular and cortisol responses to an interpersonal challenge in women who are family caregivers. Ethnicity & Disease, 15, 17–24.Google Scholar
Williams, D. R. (1999). Race, socioeconomic status, and health: The added effects of racism and discrimination. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 173–188. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08114.xGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 20–47. doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0Google Scholar
Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., Leavell, J., & Collins, C. (2010). Race, socioeconomic status, and health: Complexities, ongoing challenges, and research opportunities. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 69–101. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05339.xGoogle Scholar
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200Google Scholar
Williams, D. R., Priest, N., & Anderson, N. B. (2016). Understanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: Patterns and prospects. Health Psychology, 35, 407–411. doi:10.1037/hea0000242Google Scholar
Williams, M. J., & Eberhardt, J. L. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1033–1047. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1033Google Scholar
Wong, M. D., Shapiro, M. F., Boscardin, W. J., & Ettner, S. L. (2002). Contribution of major diseases to disparities in mortality. New England Journal of Medicine, 347, 1585–1592. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa012979Google Scholar