Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-13T01:04:28.499Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Parents’ early representations of their children moderate socialization processes: Evidence from two studies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2020

Danming An Open the ORCID record for Danming An [Opens in a new window]  and
Grazyna Kochanska
Danming An*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
Grazyna Kochanska
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, The University of Iowa, Iowa, IA, USA
*
Author for Correspondence: Danming An, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, 340 Iowa Ave, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1407. E-mail: danming-an@uiowa.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Difficult infants are commonly considered at risk for maladaptive developmental cascades, but evidence is mixed, prompting efforts to elucidate moderators of effects of difficulty. We examined features of parents’ representations of their infants – adaptive (appropriate mind-mindedness, MM) and dysfunctional (low reflective functioning, RF, hostile attributions) – as potential moderators. In Family Study (N = 102), we tested parents’ appropriate MM comments to their infants as moderating a path from infants’ observed difficulty (negative affect, unresponsiveness) to parents’ observed power assertion at ages 2–4.5 to children's observed and parent-rated (dis)regard for conduct rules at age 5.5. In father–child relationships, MM moderated that path: for fathers with low MM, the infants’ increasing difficulty was associated with fathers’ greater power assertion, which in turn was associated with children's more disregard for rules. The path was absent for fathers with average or high MM. In Children and Parents Study (N = 200), dysfunctional representations (low RF, hostile attributions) moderated the link between child objective difficulty, observed as anger in laboratory episodes, and difficulty as described by the parent. Reports of mothers with highly dysfunctional representations were unrelated to children's observed anger. Reports of mothers with average or low dysfunctional representations aligned with laboratory observations.

Keywords

internal working modelslongitudinal studiesparental representationssocialization
Type
Regular Article
Information
Development and Psychopathology , Volume 34 , Issue 3 , August 2022 , pp. 823 - 840
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Ainsworth, M. D. S., Bell, S. M., & Stayton, D. J. (1971). Individual differences in Strange Situation behaviour of one-year-olds. In Schaffer, H. R. (Ed.), The origins of human social relations (pp. 17–57). London: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Arnott, B., & Meins, E. (2007). Links among antenatal attachment representations, postnatal mind–mindedness, and infant attachment security: A preliminary study of mothers and fathers. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 71, 132–149. doi:10.1521/bumc.2007.71.2.132CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Atella, L. D., DiPietro, J. A., Smith, B. A., & St James-Roberts, I. (2003). More than meets the eye: Parental and infant contributors to maternal and paternal reports of early infant difficultness. Parenting: Science and Practice, 3, 265–284. doi:10.1207/s15327922par0304_1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, J. E. (1980). The concept of difficult temperament. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 26, 299–319. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/23084040Google Scholar
Benoit, D., Zeanah, C. H., Parker, K. C., Nicholson, E., & Coolbear, J. (1997). “Working model of the child interview”: Infant clinical status related to maternal perceptions. Infant Mental Health Journal, 18, 107–121. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0355(199721)18:1 < 107::aid-imhj8 > 3.0.co;2-n3.0.CO;2-N>CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berthelot, N., Ensink, K., Bernazzani, O., Normandin, L., Luyten, P., & Fonagy, P. (2015). Intergenerational transmission of attachment in abused and neglected mothers: The role of trauma-specific reflective functioning. Infant Mental Health Journal, 36, 200–212.doi:10.1002/imhj.21499CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braungart-Rieker, J. M., Garwood, M. M., Powers, B. P., & Wang, X. (2001). Parental sensitivity, infant affect, and affect regulation: Predictors of later attachment. Child Development, 72, 252–270. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00277CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braungart-Rieker, J., Garwood, M. M., & Stifter, C. A. (1997). Compliance and noncompliance: The roles of maternal control and child temperament. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 18, 411–428. doi:10.1016/s0193-3973(97)80008-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bretherton, I., & Munholland, K. A. (2008). Internal working models in attachment relationships: Elaborating a central construct in attachment theory. In Cassidy, J. & Shaver, P. R. (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical application (2nd ed., pp. 102–127). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Bugental, D. B., & Johnston, C. (2000). Parental and child cognitions in the context of the family. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 315–344. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.315CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Buttitta, K. V., Smiley, P. A., Kerr, M. L., Rasmussen, H. F., Querdasi, F. R., & Borelli, J. L. (2019). In a father's mind: paternal reflective functioning, sensitive parenting, and protection against socioeconomic risk. Attachment & Human Development, 21, 445–466. doi:10.1080/14616734.2019.1582596CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., & Volling, B. L. (2019). VIII. Moving research on fathering and children's development forward: Priorities and recommendations for the future. In B. L. Volling & N. J. Cabrera (Eds.), Advancing Research and Measurement on Fathering and Children's Development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 84, 107–117. doi:10.1002/mono.12404Google Scholar
Cabrera, N. J., Volling, B. L., & Barr, R. (2018). Fathers are parents, too! Widening the lens on parenting for children's development. Child Development Perspectives, 12, 152–157. doi:10.1111/cdep.12275CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camoirano, A. (2017). Mentalizing makes parenting work: A review about parental reflective functioning and clinical interventions to improve it. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00014CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carlson, E. A., Sroufe, L. A., & Egeland, B. (2004). The construction of experience: A longitudinal study of representation and behavior. Child Development, 75, 66–83. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00654.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caspi, A., Henry, B., McGee, R. O., Moffitt, T. E., & Silva, P. A. (1995). Temperamental origins of child and adolescent behavior problems: From age three to age fifteen. Child Development, 66, 55–68.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1995.tb00855.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Colonnesi, C., Zeegers, M. A., Majdandžić, M., van Steensel, F. J., & Bögels, S. M. (2019). Fathers’ and mothers’ early mind-mindedness predicts social competence and behavior problems in childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47, 1421-1435. doi:10.1007/s10802-019-00537-2CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crockenberg, S. (1986). Are temperamental differences in babies associated with predictable differences in care-giving? In Lerner, J. & Lerner, R. (Eds.), Temperament and psychosocial interaction in children: New directions for child development (Vol. 31, pp. 53–73). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Dadds, M. R., & Salmon, K. (2003). Punishment insensitivity and parenting: Temperament and learning as interacting risks for antisocial behavior. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 6, 69–86. doi:10.1023/A:1023762009877CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Davidov, M., & Grusec, J. E. (2006). Untangling the links of parental responsiveness to distress and warmth to child outcomes. Child Development, 77, 44–58. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00855.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dishion, T. J., & Patterson, G. R. (2006). The development and ecology of antisocial behavior in children and adolescents. In Cicchetti, D. & Cohen, D. J. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (2nd ed., Vol. 3, pp. 503–541). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Dix, T. H. (1991). The affective organization of parenting: Adaptive and maladaptive processes. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 3–25. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.110.1.3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dykas, M. J., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Attachment and the processing of social information across the life span: Theory and evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 19–46. doi:10.1037/a0021367CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dykas, M. J., Ehrlich, K. B., & Cassidy, J. (2011). Links between attachment and social information processing: Examination of intergenerational processes. In Benson, J. B. (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (Vol. 40, pp. 51–94). San Diego, CA: Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-386491-8.00002-5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Edhborg, M., Seimyr, L., Lundh, W., & Widström, A. M. (2000). Fussy child-difficult parenthood? Comparisons between families with a ‘depressed’ mother and non-depressed mother 2 months postpartum. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 18, 225–238. doi:10.1080/713683036CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Murphy, B. C. (1996). Parents’ reactions to children's negative emotions: Relations to children's social competence and comforting behavior. Child Development, 67, 2227–2247. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01854.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eisenberg, N., Taylor, Z. E., Widaman, K. F., & Spinrad, T. L. (2015). Externalizing symptoms, effortful control, and intrusive parenting: A test of bidirectional longitudinal relations during early childhood. Development and Psychopathology, 27, 953–968. doi:10.1017/S0954579415000620CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fergusson, D. M., Lynskey, M. T., & Horwood, L. J. (1993). The effect of maternal depression on maternal ratings of child behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 245–269. doi:10.1007/BF00917534CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fritz, M. S., & MacKinnon, D. P. (2007). Required sample size to detect the mediated effect. Psychological Science, 18, 233–239. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01882.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gagné, C., Bernier, A., & McMahon, C. A. (2018). The role of paternal mind-mindedness in preschoolers’ self-regulated conduct. Infant and Child Development, 27, 1–12. doi:10.1002/icd.2081CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gartstein, M. A., & Marmion, J. (2008). Fear and positive affectivity in infancy: Convergence/discrepancy between parent-report and laboratory-based indicators. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 227–238. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2007.10.012CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gartstein, M. A., Putnam, S. P., & Rothbart, M. K. (2012). Etiology of preschool behavior problems: Contributions of temperament attributes in early childhood. Infant Mental Health Journal, 33, 197–211. doi:10.1002/imhj.21312CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goffin, K. C., Kochanska, G., & Yoon, J. E. (2020). Children's theory of mind as a mechanism linking parents’ mind-mindedness in infancy with children's conscience. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, Advance online publication. 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104784.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, H. H., Buss, A. H., Plomin, R., Rothbart, M. K., Thomas, A., Chess, S., … McCall, R. B. (1987). Roundtable: what is temperament? Four approaches. Child Development, 58, 505–529.doi:10.2307/1130527CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1999). Laboratory Temperament Assessment Battery, Prelocomotor Version 3.1. Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.Google Scholar
Haltigan, J. D., Leerkes, E. M., Supple, A. J., & Calkins, S. D. (2014). Infant negative affect and maternal interactive behavior during the still-face procedure: The moderating role of adult attachment states of mind. Attachment and Human Development, 16, 149–173. doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.863734CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Minor, B. L., Elliott, V., Fernandez, M., O'Neal, L., … Duda, S. N.. (2019). The REDCap consortium: Building an international community of software platform partners. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 95, 103208. 10.1016/j.jbi.2019.103208.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, P. A., Taylor, R., Thielke, R., Payne, J., Gonzalez, N., & Conde, J. G.. (2009). Research electronic data capture (REDCap)—A metadata-driven methodology and workflow process for providing translational research informatics support. Journal of Biomedical Informatics, 42(2), 377–381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbi.2008.08.010.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hastings, P., & Grusec, J. E. (1997). Conflict outcome as a function of parental accuracy in perceiving child cognitions and affect. Social Development, 6, 76–90. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.1997.tb00095.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Johnson, P. O., & Fay, L. C. (1950). The Johnson-Neyman technique, its theory and application. Psychometrika, 15, 349–367. doi:10.1007/BF02288864CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kagan, J. (1998). Biology and the child. In Damon, W. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 177–235). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kagan, J., & Fox, N. A. (2006). Biology, culture, and temperamental biases. In Damon, W., Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 167–225). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Katznelson, H. (2014). Reflective functioning: A review. Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 107–117. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2013.12.003CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiel, E. J., & Hummel, A. C. (2017). Contextual influences on concordance between maternal report and laboratory observation of toddler fear. Emotion, 17, 240–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kiff, C. J., Lengua, L. J., & Zalewski, M. (2011). Nature and nurturing: Parenting in the context of child temperament. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14, 251–301. doi:10.1007/s10567-011-0093-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., & Kochanska, G. (2012). Child temperament moderates effects of parent-child mutuality on self-regulation: A relationship-based path for emotionally negative infants. Child Development, 83, 1275–1289. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01778.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kim, S., & Kochanska, G. (2020). Family sociodemographic resources moderate the path from toddlers’ hard-to-manage temperament to parental control to disruptive behavior in middle childhood. Development and Psychopathology, Advance online publication. 10.1017/S0954579419001664.Google Scholar
Kochanska, G., & Aksan, N. (2004). Development of mutual responsiveness between parents and their young children. Child Development, 75, 1657–1676.doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00808.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Barry, R. A., Stellern, S. A., & O'bleness, J. J. (2009). Early attachment organization moderates the parent–child mutually coercive pathway to children's antisocial conduct. Child Development, 80, 1288–1300. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01332.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., Boldt, L. J., & Goffin, K. C. (2019). Early relational experience: A foundation for the unfolding dynamics of parent-child socialization. Child Development Perspectives, 13, 41–47. doi:10.1111/cdep.12308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., DeVet, K., Goldman, M., Murray, K., & Putnam, S. P. (1994). Maternal reports of conscience development and temperament in young children. Child Development, 65, 852–868. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.1994.tb00788.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kochanska, G., & Kim, S. (2014). A complex interplay among the parent-child relationship, effortful control, and internalized, rule-compatible conduct in young children: Evidence from two studies. Developmental Psychology, 50, 8–21. doi:10.1037/a0032330CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kostyrka-Allchorne, K., Wass, S. V., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2020). Research Review: Do parent ratings of infant negative emotionality and self-regulation predict psychopathology in childhood and adolescence? A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective longitudinal studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61, 401–416. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13144CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lamb, M., & Tamis-LeMonda, C. (2004). The role of father: An introduction. In Lamb, M. (Ed.), The role of the father in child development (Vol. 3, pp. 1–31). New York, NY: Wiley.Google Scholar
Leerkes, E. M. (2010). Predictors of maternal sensitivity to infant distress. Parenting: Science and Practice, 10, 219–239. doi:10.1080/15295190903290840CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leerkes, E. M., & Crockenberg, S. C.. (2003). The Impact of Maternal Characteristics and Sensitivity on the Concordance Between Maternal Reports and Laboratory Observations of Infant Negative Emotionality. Infancy, 4(4), 517–539. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327078IN0404_07.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leerkes, E. M., & Siepak, K. J. (2006). Attachment linked predictors of women's emotional and cognitive responses to infant distress. Attachment and Human Development, 8, 11–32. doi:10.1080/14616730600594450CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Leerkes, E. M., Supple, A. J., O'Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Haltigan, J. D., Wong, M. S., & Fortuna, K. (2015). Antecedents of maternal sensitivity during distressing tasks: Integrating attachment, social information processing, and psychobiological perspectives. Child Development, 86, 94–111. doi:10.1111/cdev.12288CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lengua, L. J., & Wachs, T. D. (2012). Temperament and risk: Resilient and vulnerable responses to adversity. In Zentnerv, M. & Shiner, R. L. (Eds.), Handbook of temperament (pp. 519–540). New York, NY: Guilford.Google Scholar
Leung, D. W., & Slep, A. M. S. (2006). Predicting inept discipline: The role of parental depressive symptoms, anger, and attributions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74, 524–534. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.74.3.524CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lipscomb, S. T., Leve, L. D., Harold, G. T., Neiderhiser, J. M., Shaw, D. S., Ge, X., & Reiss, D. (2011). Trajectories of parenting and child negative emotionality during infancy and toddlerhood: A longitudinal analysis. Child Development, 82, 1661–1675. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01639.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F., & Egeland, B. (2011). Parenting and infant difficulty: Testing a mutual exacerbation hypothesis to predict early onset conduct problems. Child Development, 82, 2006–2020. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/41289896CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lorber, M. F., & O'leary, S. G. (2005). Mediated paths to over-reactive discipline: mothers’ experienced emotion, appraisals, and physiological responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 972–981. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.5.972CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lundy, B. L. (2003). Father–and mother–infant face-to-face interactions: Differences in mind-related comments and infant attachment? Infant Behavior and Development, 26, 200–212. doi:10.1016/s0163-6383(03)00017-1CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luyten, P., Mayes, L. C., Nijssens, L., & Fonagy, P. (2017). The parental reflective functioning questionnaire: Development and preliminary validation. PloS One, 12, e0176218.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176218CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luyten, P., Nijssens, L., Fonagy, P., & Mayes, L. C. (2017). Parental reflective functioning: Theory, research, and clinical applications. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 70, 174–199. doi:10.1080/00797308.2016.1277901CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., & Williams, J. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maoz, H., Goldstein, T., Goldstein, B. I., Axelson, D. A., Fan, J., Hickey, M. B., … Kupfer, D. J. (2014). The effects of parental mood on reports of their children's psychopathology. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53, 1111–1122. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2014.07.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McElwain, N. L., Halberstadt, A. G., & Volling, B. L. (2007). Mother-and father-reported reactions to children's negative emotions: Relations to young children's emotional understanding and friendship quality. Child Development, 78, 1407–1425. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01074.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McMahon, C. A., & Bernier, A. (2017). Twenty years of research on parental mind-mindedness: Empirical findings, theoretical and methodological challenges, and new directions. Developmental Review, 46, 54–80.doi:10.1016/j.dr.2017.07.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meins, E. (1999). Sensitivity, security and internal working models: Bridging the transmission gap. Attachment and Human Development, 1, 325–342. doi:10.1080/14616739900134181CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meins, E. (2013). Sensitive attunement to infants’ internal states: operationalizing the construct of mind-mindedness. Attachment and Human Development, 15, 524–544. doi:10.1080/14616734.2013.830388CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Meins, E., & Fernyhough, C. (2015). Mind-mindedness coding manual, Version 2.2. Unpublished manuscript. University of York, York, UK.Google Scholar
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., de Rosnay, M., Arnott, B., Leekam, S. R., & Turner, M. (2012). Mind-mindedness as a multidimensional construct: Appropriate and nonattuned mind-related comments independently predict infant–mother attachment in a socially diverse sample. Infancy, 17, 393–415. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7078.2011.00087.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Fradley, E., & Tuckey, M. (2001). Rethinking maternal sensitivity: Mothers’ comments on infants’ mental processes predict security of attachment at 12 months. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 42, 637–648. doi:10.1017/s0021963001007302CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miller, J. E., Kim, S., Boldt, L. J., Goffin, K. C., & Kochanska, G. (2019). Long-term sequelae of mothers’ and fathers’ mind-mindedness in infancy: A developmental path to children's attachment at age 10. Developmental Psychology, 55, 675–686. doi:10.1037/dev0000660CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Miner, J. L., & Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2008). Trajectories of externalizing behavior from age 2 to age 9: Relations with gender, temperament, ethnicity, parenting, and rater. Developmental Psychology, 44, 771–786. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.3.771CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998-2019). Mplus user's guide. Los Angeles, CA: Author.Google Scholar
Nix, R. L., Pinderhughes, E. E., Dodge, K. A., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & McFadyen-Ketchum, S. A. (1999). The relation between mothers’ hostile attribution tendencies and children's externalizing behavior problems: The mediating role of mothers’ harsh discipline practices. Child Development, 70, 896–909. doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00065CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, J. L., Johnston, C., Colalillo, S., & Williamson, D. (2018). Parents’ attributions for negative and positive child behavior in relation to parenting and child problems. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47, 63–75. doi:10.1080/15374416.2016.1144191CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Paulussen-Hoogeboom, M. C., Stams, G. J. J., Hermanns, J., & Peetsma, T. T. (2007). Child negative emotionality and parenting from infancy to preschool: A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, 43, 438–453. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.2.438CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pazzagli, C., Delvecchio, E., Raspa, V., Mazzeschi, C., & Luyten, P. (2018). The parental reflective functioning questionnaire in mothers and fathers of school-aged children. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27, 80–90. doi:10.1037/t67296-000CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pesonen, A., Räikkönen, K., Strandberg, T., Kelitikangas–Järvinen, L., & Järvenpää, A. (2004). Insecure adult attachment style and depressive symptoms: Implications for parental perceptions of infant temperament. Infant Mental Health Journal, 25, 99–116. doi:10.1002/imhj.10092CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., & Hayes, A. F. (2007). Addressing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227. doi:10.1080/00273170701341316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Priel, B., & Besser, A. (2000). Dependency and self-criticism among first-time mothers: The roles of global and specific support. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 437–450. doi:10.1521/jscp.2000.19.4.437CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Helbig, A. L., Gartstein, M. A., Rothbart, M. K., & Leerkes, E. (2014). Development and assessment of short and very short forms of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96, 445–458. doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.841171CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putnam, S. P., Sanson, A. V., & Rothbart, M. K. (2002). Child temperament and parenting. In Bornstein, M. H. (Ed.), Handbook of parenting: Vol. 1. Children and parenting (2nd ed., pp. 163–179). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Richters, J. E. (1992). Depressed mothers as informants about their children: A critical review of the evidence for distortion. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 485–499.doi:10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.485CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (1998). Temperament. In Damon, W. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.), (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 105–176). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In Damon, W., Lerner, R. M. (Series Eds.) & Eisenberg, N. (Vol. Ed.) (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 99–166). New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
Rothbart, M. K., & Gartstein, M. A. (2000). Infant Behavior Questionnaire – revised: Items by scale. Eugene, OR: University of Oregon.Google Scholar
Rutherford, H. J. V., Booth, C. R., Luyten, P., Bridgett, D. J., & Mayes, L. C. (2015). Investigating the association between parental reflective functioning and distress tolerance in motherhood. Infant Behavior and Development, 40, 54–63. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2015.04.005CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutherford, H. J. V., Goldberg, B., Luyten, P., Bridgett, D. J., & Mayes, L. C. (2013). Parental reflective functioning is associated with tolerance of infant distress but not general distress: Evidence for a specific relationship using a simulated baby paradigm. Infant Behavior and Development, 36, 635–641. doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2013.06.008CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanson, A., Hemphill, S. A., & Smart, D. (2004). Connections between temperament and social development: A review. Social Development, 13, 142–170. doi:10.1046/j.1467-9507.2004.00261.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sawrikar, V., & Dadds, M. (2018). What role for parental attributions in parenting interventions for child conduct problems? Advances from research into practice. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 21, 41–56. doi:10.1007/s10567-017-0243-4CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Scaramella, L. V., & Leve, L. D. (2004). Clarifying parent-child reciprocities during early childhood: The Early Childhood Coercion Model. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 7, 89–107. doi:10.1023/b:ccfp.0000030287.13160.a3CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schacht, R., Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Centifanti, L., Bureau, J., & Pawlby, S. (2017). Proof of concept of a mind–mindedness intervention for mothers hospitalized for severe mental illness. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 555–564. doi:10.1017/S0954579417000177CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sentse, M., Veenstra, R., Lindenberg, S., Verhulst, F. C., & Ormel, J. (2009). Buffers and risks in temperament and family for early adolescent psychopathology: Generic, conditional, or domain-specific effects? The TRAILS study. Developmental Psychology, 45, 419–430. doi:10.1037/a0014072CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sharp, C., & Fonagy, P. (2008). The parent's capacity to treat the child as a psychological agent: Constructs, measures and implications for developmental psychopathology. Social Development, 17, 737–754. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00457.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, D. S., & Bell, R. Q. (1993). Developmental theories of parental contributors to antisocial behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21, 493–518. doi:10.1007/BF00916316CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: new procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422–445. doi:10.1037//1082-989X.7.4.422CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slade, A. (2005). Parental reflective functioning: An introduction. Attachment and Human Development, 7, 269–281. doi:10.1080/14616730500245906CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Slade, A., Aber, J. L., Bresgi, I., Berger, B., & Kaplan, C. A. (2004). The parent development interview-revised. New York: The City University of New York.Google Scholar
Smith, J. D., Dishion, T. J., Shaw, D. S., & Wilson, M. N. (2015). Negative relational schemas predict the trajectory of coercive dynamics during early childhood. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 43, 693–703. doi:10.1007/s10802-014-9936-zCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snarr, J. D., Slep, A. M. S., & Grande, V. P. (2009). Validation of a new self-report measure of parental attributions. Psychological Assessment, 21, 390–401. doi:10.1037/a0016331CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Snyder, J., Cramer, A., Afrank, J., & Patterson, G. R. (2005). The contributions of ineffective discipline and parental hostile attributions of child misbehavior to the development of conduct problems at home and school. Developmental Psychology, 41, 30–41. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.41.1.30CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stifter, C. A., Willoughby, M. T., & Towe-Goodman, N. (2008). Agree or agree to disagree? Assessing the convergence between parents and observers on infant temperament. Infant and Child Development, 17, 407–426.doi:10.1002/icd.584CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Strassberg, Z., & Treboux, D. (2000). Interpretations of child emotion expressions and coercive parenting practices among adolescent mothers. Social Development, 9, 80–95. doi:10.1111/1467-9507.00112CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stride, C. B., Gardner, S., Catley, N. & Thomas, F. (2015). Mplus code for the mediation, moderation, and moderated mediation model templates from Andrew Hayes’ PROCESS analysis examples. Retrieved from http://www.offbeat.group.shef.ac.uk/FIO/mplusmedmod.htmGoogle Scholar
Suchman, N. E., DeCoste, C. L., McMahon, T. J., Dalton, R., Mayes, L. C., & Borelli, J. (2017). Mothering from the Inside Out: Results of a second randomized clinical trial testing a mentalization-based intervention for mothers in addiction treatment. Development and Psychopathology, 29, 617–636. doi:10.1017/S0954579417000220CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taraban, L., & Shaw, D. S. (2018). Parenting in context: Revisiting Belsky's classic process of parenting model in early childhood. Developmental Review, 48, 55–81. doi:10.1016/j.dr.2018.03.006CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, A., & Chess, S. (1977). Temperament and development. Oxford, UK: Brunner/Mazel.Google Scholar
Wagner, N. J., Gueron-Sela, N., Bedford, R., & Propper, C. (2018). Maternal attributions of infant behavior and parenting in toddlerhood predict teacher-rated internalizing problems in childhood. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 47, 569–577. doi:10.1080/15374416.2018.1477050CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Whiffen, V. E. (1990). Maternal depressed mood and perceptions of child temperament. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 151, 329–339. doi:10.1080/00221325.1990.9914621CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wong, K., Stacks, A. M., Rosenblum, K. L., & Muzik, M. (2017). Parental reflective functioning moderates the relationship between difficult temperament in infancy and behavior problems in toddlerhood. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 63, 54–76. doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar 1982.63.1.0054CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zayde, A., Prout, T. A., Kilbride, A., & Kufferath-Lin, T. (in press). The Connecting and Reflecting Experience (CARE): theoretical foundation and development of mentalizing-focused parenting groups. Attachment and Human Development. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/14616734.2020.1729213Google Scholar
Zeegers, M. A., de Vente, W., Nikolić, M., Majdandžić, M., Bögels, S. M., & Colonnesi, C. (2018). Mothers’ and fathers’ mind-mindedness influences physiological emotion regulation of infants across the first year of life. Developmental Science, 21, e12689. doi:10.1111/desc.12689CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed