¹ See "Acteur social et délinquance. Une grille de lecture du système de justice pénale", Colloque Louvain-la-Neuve, 1989. The present essay uses as point of depar ture the preparatory working document for this conference that summarizes the preparation sessions presided over by Fr. Tulkens, president of the Department of Criminology and of Penal Law of the Catholic University of Louvain. The Acts of this conference were published with the title Acteur social et délinquance, Coll. de Psychologie et de sciences humaines, Brussels, Edit. Mardaga, 1990, 475 pp.

² See Beccaria, Des délits et des peines, 1764.

³ See for example C. Lombroso, L'Homme criminel, Paris, Alcan, 1887, the first Italian edition of which appeared in 1876; E. Ferri, whose La Sociologie criminelle also appeared in French translation (Paris, Alcan, 1881); and finally Garofalo, La Criminologie, French translation Paris, Alcan, 1905.

⁴ The analysis of knowledge considered as frame of reference or interpretation has been especially developed with regard to criminology in C. Debuyst, Modèle éthologique et criminologie, Brussels, P. Mardaga, 1985.

⁵ See M.O. Gribomont, Libre arbitre, responsabilité, suggestions criminelles de 1880 à 1920, mémoire licence, U.C.L., 1989.

⁶ Hesnard, A., Psychologie du crime, Paris, Éd. Payot, 1963.

⁷ Lagache, D., Le Psychologue et le criminel, Oeuvres complètes, vol. 2, Paris, P.U.F., 1977.

⁸ De Greeff, E., Introduction à la criminologie, Paris, P.U.F., 1948.

⁹ "La notion de responsabilité en anthropologie criminelle", Revue de droit pénal et de criminologie, Brussels, May 1931.

¹⁰ We understand the term ideology in the ordinary meaning given to it by H. Dumont (Homo aequalis, Paris, Gallimard, 1977): "The ensemble of ideas and values—or images—common in a society or prevalent in a given social milieu" (p. 27).

¹¹ But which would then take on a pathological meaning. A tradition developed in this sense and it was recently the topic of bibliographical analysis: "The Think ing Criminal Cognitive Model of Lifestyle Criminality", Criminal Justice Research Bulletin, U.S.A., vol. 4, No. 4, 1989.

¹² Colin, M., Étude de criminologie clinique, Paris, Édit. Masson, 1963.

¹³ Thrasher, F., The Gang, Chicago, Univ. of Chicago Press, lst ed., 1927.

¹⁴ Shaw, C., The Natural History of a Delinquent Career, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1931.

¹⁵ L'École de Chicago. Naissance de l'écologie urbaine, Paris, Édit. du Champ urbain, 1979. See also chapter 2, "Ethnographes à Chicago" in Hannerz U., Ex plorer la ville, Paris, Édit. de Minuit, 1980; and, in a broader manner, Digneffe, F., Éthique et délinquance. La délinquance comme gestion de sa vie, Geneva, Coll. Déviance et Société, 1989.

¹⁶ Touraine, A., Le Retour de l'acteur. Essai de sociologie, Paris, Fayard, 1984.

¹⁷ Crozier, M., Friedberg, E., L'Acteur et le système, Paris, Seuil, 1977.

¹⁸ See on this aspect of A. Touraine the work of P. Tap, La Société pygmalion, intégration sociale et réalisation de la personne, Paris, Dunod, 1988, pp. 197-205.

¹⁹ Touraine, A., op. cit., p. 166.

²⁰ Touraine, A., op. cit., p. 173.

²¹ Touraine, A. op. cit., p. 177.

²² Dubet, F., La Galère: jeunes en survie, Paris, Fayard, 1987.

²³ Lickona, T. (ed.), Moral Development and Behavior: Theory Research and So cial Issues, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976.

²⁴ It should not be overlooked that already in 1927 E. Sutherland included in his definition of criminology, "the processes of development of laws, of the infraction of laws and reaction provoked by the infraction of laws"; See Vold, Theoretical Criminology, N.Y., Oxford Univ. Press, 1958, chap. 14. Thus this idea is in no way a new one.

²⁵ Since Garofalo, it might be said, who distinguished natural crimes from "statu tory" crimes.

²⁶ As a general reference we could mention the report of Professor P. Rock presented during the 13th Conference of Criminological Research at the Council of Europe (Nov. 1978); "Public Opinion and Penal Legislation". See also, in Ac teur social et délinquance, the contributions of P. Landreville (Montreal) and of P. Lascoumes.

²⁷ Rémy, J., Voyé, L., and Servais, E., Produire ou reproduire. Sociologie de la vie quotidienne, Brussels, E.V.O., 1978.

²⁸ Duyckaerts, F., La Notion de normal en psychologie clinique, Paris, Vrin, 1954.

²⁹ Here we understand the term adaptation in the sense that we can say that all behavior is adaptive and that, in a disturbing situation, a subject will react in such a way as to attain a new position of equilibrium. This is what the author calls adap tation understood in its primary sense. On the other hand, when we speak of adap tation understood in its secondary sense, the notion of adaptation is seen in rela tion to a given normative framework. We are adapted or unadapted in relation to certain requirements imposed on us from the outside.

³⁰ On this, see everything that has been said with regard to "moral en trepreneurs", who as a result of a serious incident stir up an opinion campaign that reaches as high as the legislature, even leading to some modification of the law (the starting point for this type of analysis is H.S. Becker, Outsiders, New York, Free Press, 1st. ed., 1963).

³¹ A detailed analysis would require many more details. Thus we will not speak here of victims, who form a third category. What we will say can only be taken as a very limited point of view whose value lies in pointing out several of the prin cipal areas of reflection. See in Acteur social et délinquance the presentations by Ph. Robert, F. Ost, M. van de Kerchove and G. Houchon.

³² Habermas, J., Morale et communication, Paris, Édit. du Cerf, 1986. See, for example, the rules that should apply to a discussion: every subject capable of speaking and acting should take part in discussions; each one should be able to challenge any affirmation whatsoever, etc., p. 110 et seq.

³³ See in Acteur social et délinquance, the presentation by J. Schotte and J. Kinable.

³⁴ Debuyst, C., "De la notion de punition à celle de responsabilisation. De l'am biguité d'une problématique", in Normes et valeurs, Centre de recherches de Vaucres son, 1987.

³⁵ See, for example, the work by J. Leyens, Sommes-nous tous des psychologues?, Brussels, P. Mardaga, 1983; and also Debuyst, C., Modèle éthologique et criminologie, ch. 2, "La notion d'infraction comme mode d'interprétation".

³⁶ Report of the Canadian Commission on Determination of Penalty, Réformer la sentence. Une approche canadienne, Feb. 1987.

³⁷ De Greeff, E., Les Instincts de défense et de sympathie, Paris, P.U.F., 1947.

³⁸ Debuyst, C., op. cit., ch. 5, "Les règles morales et l'ambiguïté d'une référ ence aux valeurs".