Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-t5tsf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-12T08:46:35.921Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in urban soils of Glasgow, UK

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 November 2018

Alexander W. Kim ,
Christopher H. Vane ,
Vicky L. Moss-Hayes ,
Darren J. Beriro ,
C. Paul Nathanail ,
Fiona M. Fordyce  and
Paul A. Everett
Alexander W. Kim*
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Organic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK. Email: awk@bgs.ac.uk
Christopher H. Vane
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Organic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK. Email: awk@bgs.ac.uk
Vicky L. Moss-Hayes
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Organic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK. Email: awk@bgs.ac.uk
Darren J. Beriro
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Organic Geochemistry, Centre for Environmental Geochemistry, Keyworth, Nottingham NG12 5GG, UK. Email: awk@bgs.ac.uk
C. Paul Nathanail
Affiliation:
School of Geography, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK & Land Quality Management Ltd., The Sir Colin Campbell Building, Triumph Road, Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK.
Fiona M. Fordyce
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK.
Paul A. Everett
Affiliation:
British Geological Survey, Lyell Centre, Research Avenue South, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK.
*
*Corresponding author
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Concentrations of total organic carbon (TOC), total petroleum hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in 84 near-surface soils (5–20cm depth) taken from a 255km2 area of Glasgow in the Clyde Basin, UK, during July 2011. Total petroleum hydrocarbon range was 79–2,505mgkg–1 (mean 388mgkg–1; median 272mgkg–1) of which the aromatic fraction was 13–74 % (mean 44 %, median 43 %) and saturates were 28–87 % (mean 56 %, median 57 %). ∑16 PAH varied from 2–653mgkg–1 (mean 32.4mgkg–1; median 12.5mgkg–1) and ∑31 PAH range was 2.47–852mgkg–1 (mean 45.4mgkg–1; median 19.0mgkg–1). ∑PCBtri-hepta range was 2.2–1052μgkg–1 (mean 32.4μgkg–1; median 12.7μgkg–1) and the ∑PCB7 range was 0.3–344μgkg–1 (mean 9.8μgkg–1; median 2.7μgkg–1). The concentration, distribution and source of the persistent organic pollutants were compared with those found in urban soils from other cities and to human health assessment criteria for chronic exposure to chemicals in soil. Total concentrations encountered were generally similar to other urban areas that had a similar industrial history. Benzo[a]pyrene concentrations were assessed against four different land use scenarios (irrespective of current land use) using generic assessment criteria resulting in six of 84 samples exceeding the residential criteria. Isomeric PAH ratios and relative abundance of perylene suggest multiple and environmentally modified pyrogenic PAH sources, inferred to be representative of diffuse pollution. ∑PCB7 concentrations were exceeded in 10 % of sites using the Dutch target value of 20μgkg–1. PCB congener profiles were environmentally attenuated and generally dominated by penta-, hexa- and hepta-chlorinated congeners.

Keywords

benzo[a]pyrenecontaminationdose–response roadmapland qualitypersistent organic pollutantspollutionrisktotal petroleum hydrocarbons
Type
Articles
Information
Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of The Royal Society of Edinburgh , Volume 108 , Issue 2-3: The Geosciences in Europe’s Urban Sustainability: Lessons from Glasgow and Beyond (CUSP) , June 2017 , pp. 231 - 247
Copyright
Copyright © British Geological Survey UKRI 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

5. References

Achten, C. & Hofmann, T. 2009. Native polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in coals – a hardly recognized source of environmental contamination. Science of the Total Environment 407, 2461–2473.Google Scholar
Alcock, R. E., Johnston, A. E., McGrath, S. P., Berrow, M. L. & Jones, K. C. 1993. Long-term changes in the polychlorinated biphenyl content of United-Kingdom soils. Environmental Science & Technology 27, 1918–1923.Google Scholar
Andersson, M., Ottesen, R. T. & Volden, T. 2004. Building materials as a source of PCB pollution in Bergen, Norway. Science of the Total Environment 325, 139–144.Google Scholar
ATSDR. 2015. Support document to the 2015 priority list of hazardous substances that will be candidates for toxicological profiles. Atlanta, GA: ATSDR.Google Scholar
Bearcock, J. M., Everett, P. A., Scheib, A. J., Fordyce, F. M., Nice, S. E. & Vane, C. H. 2012. A report on the G-BASE field campaign of 2011: completion of the coverage of the Clyde Basin. Nottingham: British Geological Survey.Google Scholar
Beriro, D. J., Vane, C. H., Cave, M. R. & Nathanail, C. P. 2014. Effects of drying and comminution type on the quantification of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) in a homogenised gasworks soil and the implications for human health risk assessment. Chemosphere 111, 396–404.Google Scholar
Boehm, P. D. 2006. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In Morrison, R. D. & Murphy, B. L. (eds) Environmental forensics, 313–338. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bradley, L. J. N., Magee, B. H. & Allen, S. L. 1994. Background levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and selected metals in New England urban soils. Journal of Soil Contamination 34, 1–13.Google Scholar
Bucheli, T. D., Blum, F., Desaules, A. & Gustafsson, O. 2004. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, black carbon, and molecular markers in soils of Switzerland. Chemosphere 56, 1061–1076.Google Scholar
Budzinski, H., Jones, I., Bellocq, J. & Pierard, C. 1997. Evaluation of sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Gironde estuary. Marine Chemistry 58, 85–97.Google Scholar
Butler, J. D., Butterworth, V., Kellow, S. C. & Robinson, H. G. 1984. Some observations on the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of surface soils in urban areas. Science of the Total Environment 33, 75–85.Google Scholar
Cachada, A., Lopes, L. V., Hursthouse, A. S., Biasioli, M., Grcman, H., Otabbong, E., Davidson, C. M. & Duarte, A. C. 2009. The variability of polychlorinated biphenyls levels in urban soils from five European cities. Environmental Pollution 157, 511–518.Google Scholar
Charlesworth, M., Service, M. & Gibson, C. E. 2002. PAH contamination of western Irish Sea sediments. Marine Pollution Bulletin 44, 1421–1426.Google Scholar
Clay, J. & Harris, M. E. 2002. Risk-based corrective action of hydrocarbon contamination at a former major urban petroleum storage site in the UK. Soil & Sediment Contamination 11, 701–718.Google Scholar
Conde, F. J., Ayala, J. H., Afonso, A. M. & González, V. 2005. Emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from combustion of agricultural and sylvicultural debris. Atmospheric Environment 39, 6654–6663.Google Scholar
Costa, H. J. & Sauer, T. C. 2005. Forensic approaches and considerations in identifying PAH background. Environmental Forensics 6, 9–16.Google Scholar
Covaci, A., Hura, C. & Schepens, P. 2001. Selected persistent organochlorine pollutants in Romania. Science of the Total Environment 280, 143–152.Google Scholar
CRCE-PHE. 2008. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzo[a]pyrene). Chilton, Oxfordshire: Centre for Radiation, Chemicals and Environmental Hazards (CRCE) Public Health England.Google Scholar
Creaser, C. S., Wood, M. D., Alcock, R., Copplestone, D. & Crook, P. J. 2007a. UK soil and herbage pollutant survey: UKSHS Report No. 8, environmental concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in UK soil and herbage. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency.Google Scholar
Creaser, C. S., Wood, M. D., Alcock, R., Copplestone, D. & Crook, P. J. 2007b. UK soil and herbage pollutant survey: UKSHS Report No. 9, environmental concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in UK soil and herbage. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency.Google Scholar
Culp, S. J., Gaylor, D. W., Sheldon, W. G., Goldstein, L. S. & Beland, F. A. 1998. A comparison of the tumors induced by coal tar and benzo[a]pyrene in a 2-year bioassay. Carcinogenesis 19, 117–124.Google Scholar
Douglas, G. S., Bence, A. E., Prince, R. C., Mcmillen, S. J. & Butler, E. L. 1996. Environmental stability of selected petroleum hydrocarbon source and weathering ratios. Environmental Science & Technology 30, 2332–2339.Google Scholar
Du, S., Belton, T. J. & Rodenburg, L. A. 2008. Source apportionment of polychlorinated biphenyls in the tidal Delaware River. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 4044–4051.Google Scholar
Edgar, P. J., Davies, I. M., Hursthouse, A. S. & Matthews, J. E. 1999. The biogeochemistry of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the Clyde: distribution and source evaluation. Marine Pollution Bulletin 38, 486–496.Google Scholar
Environment Agency. 2009. Soil guideline values for dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs in soil. Science Report SC050021/Dioxins SGV. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency.Google Scholar
Environment-Canada. 1999. Canadian soil quality guidelines for the protection of environmental and human health: polychlorinated biphenyls. Winnipeg, Canada: Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment.Google Scholar
Garcia-Alonso, S. & Perez-Pastor, R. M. 2003. Occurrence of PCBs in ambient air and surface soil in an urban site of Madrid. Water Air and Soil Pollution 146, 283–295.Google Scholar
Gonzalezvila, F. J., Lopez, J. L., Martin, F. & del Rio, J. C. 1991. Determination in soils of PAH produced by combustion of biomass under different conditions. Fresenius Journal of Analytical Chemistry 339, 750–753.Google Scholar
Harrad, S. J., Sewart, A. P., Alcock, R., Boumphrey, R., Burnett, V., Duarte-Davidson, R., Halsall, C., Sanders, G., Waterhouse, K., Wild, S. R. & Jones, K. C. 1994. Polychlorinated-biphenyls (PCBs) in the British environment – sinks, sources and temporal trends. Environmental Pollution 85, 131–146.Google Scholar
Helsel, D. R. 2006. Fabricating data: How substituting values for nondetects can ruin results, and what can be done about it. Chemosphere 65, 2434–2439.Google Scholar
Heywood, E., Wright, J., Wienburg, C. L., Black, H. I., Long, S. M., Osborn, D. & Spurgeon, D. J. 2006. Factors influencing the national distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in British soils. Environmental Science & Technology 40, 7629–7635.Google Scholar
Hopkins, J., Gowers, A. & Horsford, M. 2009. Contaminants in soil: updated collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans. Dioxins, furans and dioxin-like PCBs. SC050021/TOX 12. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency.Google Scholar
HPA. 2010. Risk assessment approaches for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) – Version 5. Didcot, UK: Health Protection Agency.Google Scholar
Ikarashi, Y., Kaniwa, M. A. & Tsuchiya, T. 2005. Monitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and water-extractable phenols in creosotes and creosote-treated woods made and procurable in Japan. Chemosphere 60, 1279–1287.Google Scholar
Irvine, K. N. & Loganathan, B. G. 1998. Localized enrichment of PCB levels in street dust due to redistribution by wind. Water Air and Soil Pollution 105, 603–615.Google Scholar
Johnson, G. W., Quenson, J. F. I., Chiarenzelli, J. R. & Hamilton, M. C. 2006. Polychlorinated biphenyls. In Morrison, R. D. & Murphy, B. L. (eds) Environmental forensics, 187–226. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press.Google Scholar
Jones, K. C. & de Voogt, P. 1999. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs): state of the science. Environmental Pollution 100, 209–221.Google Scholar
Kakareka, S. V. & Kukharchyk, T. I. 2003. PAH emission from the open burning of agricultural debris. Science of the Total Environment 308, 257–261.Google Scholar
Katsoyiannis, A., Sweetman, A. J. & Jones, K. C. 2011. PAH molecular diagnostic ratios applied to atmospheric sources: a critical evaluation using Two decades of source inventory and air concentration data from the UK. Environmental Science & Technology 45, 8897–8906.Google Scholar
Krauss, M. & Wilcke, W. 2003. Polychlorinated naphthalenes in urban soils: analysis, concentrations, and relation to other persistent organic pollutants. Environmental Pollution 122, 75–89.Google Scholar
Lead, W. A., Steinnes, E., Bacon, J. R. & Jones, K. C. 1997. Polychlorinated biphenyls in UK and Norwegian soils: spatial and temporal trends. Science of the Total Environment 193, 229–236.Google Scholar
Li, Z. Y., Kong, S. F., Chen, L., Bai, Z. P., Ji, Y. Q., Liu, J. W., Lu, B., Han, B. & Wang, Q. W. 2011. Concentrations, spatial distributions and congener profiles of polychlorinated biphenyls in soils from a coastal city – Tianjin, China. Chemosphere 85, 494–501.Google Scholar
Lorenzi, D., Cave, M. & Dean, J. R. 2010. An investigation into the occurrence and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in two soil size fractions at a former industrial site in NE England, UK using in situ PFE-GC-MS. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 32, 553–565.Google Scholar
Luo, X.-J., Chen, S. J., Mai, B. X., Sheng, G. Y., Fu, J. M. & Zeng, E. Y. 2008. Distribution, source apportionment, and transport of PAHs in sediments from the Pearl River Delta and the northern South China Sea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 55, 11–20.Google Scholar
Martin, I. & Cowie, C. 2008. Compilation of data for priority organic pollutants for derivation of Soil Guideline Values. Science report: SC050021/SR7. Bristol, UK: Environment Agency.Google Scholar
Martinez, A., Erdman, N. R., Rodenburg, Z. L., Eastling, P. M. & Hornbuckle, K. C. 2012. Spatial distribution of chlordanes and PCB congeners in soil in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA. Environmental Pollution 161, 222–228.Google Scholar
McCready, S., Slee, D., Birch, G. F. & Taylor, S. E. 2000. The distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surficial sediments of Sydney Harbour, Australia. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40, 999–1006.Google Scholar
McGregor, L. A., Gauchotte-Lindsay, C., Daéid, N. N., Thomas, R. & Kalin, R. M. 2012. Multivariate statistical methods for the environmental forensic classification of coal tars from former manufactured Gas plants. Environmental Science & Technology 46, 3744–3752.Google Scholar
Menzie, C. A., Potocki, B. B. & Santodonato, J. 1992. Exposure to carcinogenic PAHs in the environment. Environmental Science & Technology 26, 1278–1284.Google Scholar
Morillo, E., Romero, A. S., Maqueda, C., Madrid, L., Ajmone-Marsan, F., Grcman, H., Davidson, C. M., Hursthouse, A. S. & Villaverde, J. 2007. Soil pollution by PAHs in urban soils: a comparison of three European cities. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 9, 1001–1008.Google Scholar
Motelay-Massei, A., Ollivon, D., Garban, B., Teil, M. J., Blanchard, M. & Chevreuil, M. 2004. Distribution and spatial trends of PAHs and PCBs in soils in the Seine River basin, France. Chemosphere 55, 555–565.Google Scholar
Napolitano, G. E., Richmond, J. E., & Stewart, A. J. 1998. Characterization of petroleum-contaminated soils by thin-layer chromatography with flame ionization detection. Journal of Soil Contamination 7, 709–724.Google Scholar
Nathanail, C. P., McCaffrey, C., Gillett, A., Ogden, R. & Nathanail, J. 2015. The LQM/CIEH S4ULs for human health risk assessment. Nottingham: Land Quality Press.Google Scholar
National Archives of Scotland. 2012. News: census 2011: population estimates for Scotland. Edinburgh: National Archives of Scotland.Google Scholar
Praipipat, P., Rodenburg, L. A., & Cavallo, G. J. 2013. Source apportionment of polychlorinated biphenyls in the sediments of the Delaware River. Environmental Science & Technology 47, 4277–4283.Google Scholar
Pribyl, D. W. 2010. A critical review of the conventional SOC to SOM conversion factor. Geoderma 156, 75–83.Google Scholar
Reed, P. 1999. Glasgow: the forming of the city. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
Ribes, A., Grimalt, J. O., Torres García, C. J. & Cuevas, E. 2003. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in mountain soils of the subtropical Atlantic. Journal of Environmental Quality 32, 977–987.Google Scholar
Ruzickova, P., Klánová, J., Čupr, P., Lammel, G. & Holoubek, I. 2008. An assessment of air-soil exchange of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides across Central and Southern Europe. Environmental Science & Technology 42, 179–185.Google Scholar
Salihoglu, G., Salihoglu, N. K., Aksoy, E. & Tasdemir, Y. 2011. Spatial and temporal distribution of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations in soils of an industrialized city in Turkey. Journal of Environmental Management 92, 724–732.Google Scholar
Silliman, J. E., Meyers, P. A. & Eadie, B. J. 1998. Perylene: an indicator of alteration processes or precursor materials? Organic Geochemistry 29, 1737–1744.Google Scholar
Smith, D. J. T., Edelhauser, E. C. & Harrison, R. M. 1995. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations in road dust and soil samples collected in the United Kingdom and Pakistan. Environmental Technology 16, 45–53.Google Scholar
Stout, S. A. & Emsbo-Mattingly, S. D. 2008. Concentration and character of PAHs and other hydrocarbons in coals of varying rank – implications for environmental studies of soils and sediments containing particulate coal. Organic Geochemistry 39, 801–819.Google Scholar
Stratton, C. L. & Sosebee, J. B. 1976. PCB and PCT contamination of environment near sites of manufacture and use. Environmental Science & Technology 10, 1229–1233.Google Scholar
Tang, X. J., Shen, C., Shi, D., Cheema, S. A., Khan, M. I., Zhang, C. & Chen, Y. 2010. Heavy metal and persistent organic compound contamination in soil from Wenling: an emerging e-waste recycling city in Taizhou area, China. Journal of Hazardous Materials 173, 653–660.Google Scholar
Tobiszewski, M. & Namiesnik, J. 2012. PAH diagnostic ratios for the identification of pollution emission sources. Environmental Pollution 162, 110–119.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Harrison, I. & Kim, A. W. 2007. Assessment of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in surface sediments of the Inner Clyde Estuary, UK. Marine Pollution Bulletin 54, 1301–1306.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Harrison, I., Kim, A. W., Moss-Hayes, V., Vickers, B. P. & Horton, B. P. 2008. Status of organic pollutants in surface sediments of Barnegat Bay-Little Egg Harbor Estuary, New Jersey, USA. Marine Pollution Bulletin 56, 1802–1808.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Harrison, I., Kim, A. W., Moss-Hayes, V., Vickers, B. P. & Hong, K. 2009. Organic and metal contamination in surface mangrove sediments of South China. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58, 134–144.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Ma, Y. J., Chen, S. J. & Mai, B. X. 2010. Increasing polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination in sediment cores from the inner Clyde Estuary, UK. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 32, 13–21.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Chenery, S. R., Harrison, I., Kim, A. W., Moss-Hayes, V. & Jones, D. G. 2011. Chemical signatures of the anthropocene in the Clyde estuary, UK: sediment-hosted Pb, 207/206Pb, total petroleum hydrocarbons, polyaromatic hydrocarbon and polychlorinated biphenyl pollution records. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 369, 1085–1111.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Rawlins, B. G., Kim, A. W., Moss-Hayes, V., Kendrick, C. P. & Leng, M. J. 2013. Sedimentary transport and fate of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from managed burning of moorland vegetation on a blanket peat, South Yorkshire, UK. Science of the Total Environment 449, 81–94.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Kim, A. W., Beriro, D. J., Cave, M. R., Knights, K., Moss-Hayes, V. & Nathanail, P. C. 2014. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) in urban soils of Greater London, UK. Applied Geochemistry 51, 303–314.Google Scholar
Vane, C. H., Lopes dos Santos, R. A., Kim, A. W., Moss-Hayes, V., Fordyce, F. M. & Bearcock, J. M. 2018. Persistent organic pollutants (PAH, PCB, TPH) in freshwater, urban tributary and estuarine surface sediments of the River Clyde, Scotland, UK. Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. DOI: 10.1017/S1755691018000294.Google Scholar
Venkatesan, M. I. 1988. Occurrence and possible sources of perylene in marine-sediments - a review. Marine Chemistry 25, 1–27.Google Scholar
Viguri, J. R., Irabien, M. J., Yusta, I., Soto, J., Gómez, J., Rodriguez, P., Martinez-Madrid, M., Irabien, J. A., Coz, A. 2007. Physico-chemical and toxicological characterization of the historic estuarine sediments: A multidisciplinary approach. Environment International 33, 436–444.Google Scholar
VROM. 2000. Circular on target values and intervention values for soil remediation. Barendrecht: Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment.Google Scholar
Wang, D. G., Yang, M., Jia, H L., Zhou, L. & Li, Y. F. 2008. Levels, distributions and profiles of polychlorinated biphenyls in surface soils of Dalian, China. Chemosphere 73, 38–42.Google Scholar
Wang, X. C., Sun, S., Ma, H. Q. & Liu, Y. 2006. Sources and distribution of aliphatic and polyaromatic hydrocarbons in sediments of Jiaozhou Bay, Qingdao, China. Marine Pollution Bulletin 52, 129–138.Google Scholar
Wang, X.-T., Miao, Y., Zhang, Y., Li, Y. C., Wu, M. H. & Yu, G. 2013. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban soils of the megacity Shanghai: occurrence, source apportionment and potential human health risk. Science of the Total Environment 447, 80–89.Google Scholar
Wilcke, W. 2000. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil – a review. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science-Zeitschrift Fur Pflanzenernahrung Und Bodenkunde 163, 229–248.Google Scholar
Wilcke, W. 2007. Global patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil. Geoderma 141, 157–166.Google Scholar
Wilcke, W., Krauss, M., Safronov, G., Fokin, A. D. & Kaupenjohann, M. 2005. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soils of the Moscow region - concentrations, temporal trends, and small-scale distribution. Journal of Environmental Quality 34, 1581–1590.Google Scholar
Wilcke, W., Krauss, M., Safronov, G., Fokin, A. D. & Kaupenjohann, M. 2006. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in soils of the Moscow region: concentrations and small-scale distribution along an urban-rural transect. Environmental Pollution 141, 327–335.Google Scholar
Wild, S. R. & Jones, K. C. 1995. Polynuclear aromatic-hydrocarbons in the United-Kingdom environment – a preliminary source inventory and budget. Environmental Pollution 88, 91–108.Google Scholar
Willsch, H. & Radke, M. 1995. Distribution of polycyclic aromatic-compounds in coals of high rank. Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds 7, 231–251.Google Scholar
Xing, Y., Lu, Y., Dawson, R. W., Shi, Y., Zhang, H., Wang, T., Liu, W., Ren, H. 2005. A spatial temporal assessment of pollution from PCBs in China. Chemosphere 60, 731–739.Google Scholar
Yunker, M. B., Macdonald, R. W., Vingarzan, R., Mitchell, R. H., Goyette, D. & Sylvestre, S. 2002. PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Organic Geochemistry 33, 489–515.Google Scholar