Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-fbnjt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-18T07:03:04.608Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Symbolic Culture and Technological Change: The Cultural History of Aluminum as an Industrial Material

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 February 2015

Eric Schatzberg
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The history of aluminum illustrates how the concept of symbolic meanings can help connect culture with business history. Aluminum's symbolic meanings played a crucial role in its industrial history, largely through the enthusiasm that greeted the introduction and diffusion of the metal. Symbolic meanings influence technological innovation through their role in shaping expectations, a role understood by the historical actors who engage in struggles over the meanings of competing innovations. For aluminum, this struggle centered on the conflict between the material's two major meanings: aluminum as modern and aluminum as ersatz. This debate over meanings has played out differently in aviation, electric wiring, and automobiles.

Type
Articles
Information
Enterprise & Society , Volume 4 , Issue 2 , 01 June 2003 , pp. 226 - 271
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s) 2003. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Business History Conference. All rights reserved.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Bibliography of Works Cited

Books

Aluminum Company of America. Aluminum in Aircraft. Pittsburgh, Pa., 1930.Google Scholar
Barham, Brad, Bunker, Stephen G., and Denis O’Hearn, eds. States, Firms, and Raw Materials: The World Economy and Ecology of Aluminum. Madison, Wise., 1994.Google Scholar
Baudrillard, Jean. Simulations. New York, 1983.Google Scholar
Blaszczyk, Regina Lee. Imagining Consumers: Design and Innovation from Wedgwood to Corning. Baltimore, Md., 2000.Google Scholar
Bonnell, Victoria E., and Hunt, Lynn, eds. Beyond the Cultural Turn: New Directions in the Study of Society and Culture. Berkeley, Calif., 1999.Google Scholar
Brubaker, Sterling. Trends in the World Aluminum Industry. Baltimore, Md., 1967.Google Scholar
Corn, Joseph J. Winged Gospel: America’s Romance with Aviation, 19001950. New York, 1983.Google Scholar
CRB Commodity Yearbook 1998. New York, 1998.Google Scholar
Terry, Eagleton. The Idea of Culture. Oxford, U.K., 2000.Google Scholar
Ewen, Stewart. Captains of Consciousness: Advertising and the Social Roots of the Consumer Culture. New York, 1976.Google Scholar
Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. 2d ed. New York, 1989.Google Scholar
Geertz, Clifford. Interpretation of Cultures. New York, 1973.Google Scholar
Gordon, J. E. Structures: Or, Why Things Don’t Fall Down. New York, 1978.Google Scholar
Gottdiener, Mark. Postmodern Semiotics: Material Culture and the Forms of Postmodern Life. Oxford, U.K., 1995.Google Scholar
Graham, Margaret B. W., and Pruitt, Bettye H.. R&D for Industry: A Century of Technical Innovation at Alcoa. New York, 1990.Google Scholar
Hachez-Leroy, Florence. L’AIuminium Francais: L’Invention d’un Marche, 1911-1983. Paris, 1999.Google Scholar
Hughes, Thomas P. Networks of Power: Electrification in Western Society, 1880-1930. Baltimore, Md., 1983.Google Scholar
Jasper, James J. Nuclear Politics: Energy and the State in the United States, Sweden, and France. Princeton, N.J., 1990.Google Scholar
Kroeber, Alfred L., and Kluckhohn, Clyde. Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions. Cambridge, Mass., 1952.Google Scholar
Marchand, Roland. Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940. Berkeley, Calif., 1985.Google Scholar
Marx, Leo. Machine in the Garden: TechnoIogy and the PastoraI IdeaI in America. New York, 1964.Google Scholar
Marx, Leo. The Pilot and the Passenger: Essays on Literature, Technology, and CuIture in the United States. New York, 1988.Google Scholar
Meikle, Jeffrey L. American Plastic: A Cultural History. New Brunswick, N.J., 1995.Google Scholar
Mumford, Lewis. Technics and Civilization. New York, 1934.Google Scholar
Nichols, Sarah, ed. Aluminum by Design. Pittsburgh, Pa., 2000.Google Scholar
Nye, David E. American Technological Sublime. Cambridge, Mass., 1994.Google Scholar
Nye, David E. Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880- 1940. Cambridge, Mass., 1990.Google Scholar
Packard, Vance. The Hidden Persuaders. New York, 1957.Google Scholar
Peck, Merton J. Competition in the Aluminum Industry, 1945-1958. Cambridge, Mass., 1961.Google Scholar
Sahlins, Marshall. Culture and Practical Reason. Chicago, 1976.Google Scholar
Schatzberg, Eric. Wings of Wood, Wings of Metal: Culture and Technical Choice in American Airplane Materials, 1914-1945. Princeton, N.J., 1999.Google Scholar
Schein, Donald. Technology and Change: The New Heraclitus. New York, 1967.Google Scholar
Schor, Juliet B., and Holt, Douglas B., eds. The Consumer Society Reader. New York, 2000.Google Scholar
Smith, George David. From Monopoly to Competition: The Transformation of Alcoa, 1888-1986. New York, 1988.Google Scholar
Thompson, John B. Studies in the Theory of Ideology. Cambridge, U.K., 1984.Google Scholar
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. FAO Yearbook, Forest Products, 2000. Rome, 2002.Google Scholar
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. Forestry Statistics Today for Tomorrow: 1945-1993-2010. Rome, 1995.Google Scholar
Wallace, Donald H. Market Control in the Aluminum Industry. Cambridge, Mass., 1937.Google Scholar

Articles and Essays

Arthur, W. Brian “Competing Technologies: An Overview.” In Technical Change and Economic Theory, ed. Dosi, Giovanni, et al. New York, 1988, pp. 590–607.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. Brian. “Increasing Returns and the New World of Business.” Harvard Business Review 74 (July-Aug. 1996): 100–109.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. Brian. “Positive Feedbacks in the Economy.” Scientific American 292 (Feb. 1990): 92–99.Google Scholar
Becker, William H. “Presidential Address: Managerial Culture and the American Political Economy.” Business and Economic History 25 (Fall 1996): 1–8.Google Scholar
Biernacki, Richard. “Language and the Shift from Signs to Practices in Cultural Inquiry.” History and Theory 39 (Oct. 2000): 289–310.Google Scholar
Carey, James W., and Quirk, John J.. “Mythos of the Electronic Revolution.” In Communication as Culture: Essays on Media and Society, ed. Carey, James W.. New York, 1989, pp. 113–41.Google Scholar
Cowan, Ruth Schwartz. “The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology.” In The Social Construction of Technological Systems, ed. Bijker, Wiebe E., Hughes, Thomas P., and Pinch, Trevor. Cambridge, Mass., 1987, pp. 261–80.Google Scholar
David, Paul A. “The Hero and the Herd in Technological History: Reflections on Thomas Edison and the Battle of the Systems.” In Favorites ofFortune: Technology, Growth, and Economic Development since the Industrial Revolution, ed. Higonnet, Patrice, Landes, David S., and Rosovsky, Henry. Cambridge, Mass., 1991, pp. 72–119.Google Scholar
David, Paul A. “Understanding the Economics of QWERTY: The Necessity of History.” In Economic History and the Modern Economist, ed. Parker, William N.. New York, 1986, pp. 30–49.Google Scholar
Dosi, Giovanni. “Opportunities, Incentives and the Collective Patterns of Technological Change.” Economic Journal 107 (997): 1530–47.Google Scholar
Dosi, Giovanni, and Egidi, Massimo. “Substantive and Procedural Uncertainty: An Exploration of Economic Behaviours in Changing Environments.” Journal of Evolutionary Economics 1 (1991): 145–68.Google Scholar
Friedel, Robert. “Some Matters of Substance.” In History from Things: Essays on Material Culture, ed. Lubar, Steven and David Kingery, W.. Washington, D.C., 1993, pp. 41–50.Google Scholar
Hall, Marie Boas. “The Strange Case of Aluminium.” History of Technology 1 (1976): 143–57.Google Scholar
Lamoreaux, Naomi R. “Reframing the Past: Thoughts about Business Leadership and Decision Making under Uncertainty.” Enterprise & Society 2 (2001): 632–59.Google Scholar
Lamoreaux, Naomi R., Raff, Daniel, and Temin, Peter. “New Economic Approaches To the Study of Business History.” Business and Economic History 26 (Fall 1997): 57–79.Google Scholar
Lipartito, Kenneth. “Business History and Business Culture.” Business History Review 73 (Spring 1999): 126–28.Google Scholar
Lipartito, Kenneth. “Culture and the Practice of Business History.” Business and Economic History 24 (Winter 1995): 1–52.Google Scholar
Lipartito, Kenneth. “Picturephone and the Information Age: The Social Meaning of Failure.” Technology and Culture 44 (Jan. 2003): 50–81.Google Scholar
Maier, Helmut. “‘Austauschmetall’ und ‘Stromfresser’: Aluminium im Dritten Reich.” Praxis Geschichte 5 (1993): 32–36.Google Scholar
Maier, Helmut. “New Age Metal or Ersatz? Technological Uncertainties and Ideological Implications of Aluminium up to the 1930s.” ICON 3 (1997): 181–201.Google Scholar
Misa, Thomas J. “Toward an Historical Sociology of Business Culture.” Business and Economic History 25 (Fall 1996): 55–64.Google Scholar
Moskowitz, Marina. “Standard Bearers: Material Culture and Middle-Class Communities at the Turn of the Twentieth Century.” Enterprise & Society 1 (Dec. 2000): 693–98.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Nathan. “On Technological Expectations.” In Inside the Black Box: Technologyand Economics, ed. Rosenberg, Nathan. New York, 1982, pp. 104–19.Google Scholar
Ruttan, Vernon W. “Induced Innovation, Evolutionary Theory and Path Dependence: Sources of Technical Change.” Economic Journal 107 (Sept. 1997): 1520–29.Google Scholar
Sabel, Charles F., and Zeitlin, Jonathan. “Stories, Strategies, and Structures: Rethinking Historical Alternatives to Mass Productions.” In World of Possibilities: Flexibility and Mass Production in Western Industrialization, ed. Sabel, Charles F. and Zeitlin, Jonathan. New York, 1997, pp. 5–20.Google Scholar
Schatzberg, Eric. “Culture and Technology in the City: Opposition to Mechanized Street Transport in Late-Nineteenth-Century America.” In Technologies of Power: Essays in Honor of Thomas Parke Hughes and Agatha Chipley Hughes, ed. Michael Allen and Gabrielle Hecht. Cambridge, Mass., 2001, pp. 57–94.Google Scholar
Scranton, Philip, and Horowitz, Roger. “‘The Future of Business History’: An Introduction.” Business and Economic History 26 (Fall 1997): 1–4.Google Scholar
Smith, Merritt Roe. “Technology, Industrialization, and the Idea of Progress in America.” In Responsible Science: The Impact of Technology on Society, ed. Byrne, Kevin B.. San Francisco, Calif., 1986, pp. 1–30.Google Scholar
Staudenmaier, John M. “Perils of Progress Talk: Some Historical Considerations.” In Science, Technology, and Social Progress, ed. Goldman, Steven L.. Bethlehem, Pa., 1989, pp. 268–93.Google Scholar
Swidler, Ann. “Culture in Action: Symbols and Strategies.” American Sociological Review 51 (April 1986): 273–86.Google Scholar
Wright, Gavin. “Towards a More Historical Approach to Technological Change.” Economic Journal 107 (1997): 1560–66.Google Scholar

Magazines, Newspapers, and Trade Publications

“The Aluminum Age.” Science 77 (10 Feb. 1933): supp. 7.Google Scholar
“Aluminum Battles a ‘Hazard’ Label.” Business Week (25 Aug. 1975), 26.Google Scholar
“Aluminum Comes Back.” Literary Digest 93 (7 May 1927): 22.Google Scholar
“The Aluminum Shape of Things to Come in the Electrical Industry.” Aluminum News Letter (June 1944), 4-5.Google Scholar
“Aluminum Takes on New Job.” Business Week (1 Oct. 1955), 140Google Scholar
“Aluminum Wire.” Business Week (28 April 1956), 182.Google Scholar
“Aluminum Woos Auto Industry.” Business Week (23 March 1956), 73–76.Google Scholar
American Society for Testing Materials. Symposium on Developments in Automotive Materials Held at the Detroit Regional Meeting, American Society for Testing Materials, Detroit, Mich., March 19, 1930. ASTM Special Technical Publication, no. 10. Philadelphia, Pa., 1930.Google Scholar
Aronstein, J. “Failure of Aluminum Connections in Residential Applications.” In Electrical Contacts—1991, Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh IEEEHolm Conference on Electrical Contacts. Chicago, 1991, pp. 271–77.Google Scholar
Ashley, Steven. “Aluminum Vehicle Breaks New Ground.” MechanicalEngineering 116 (Feb. 1994): 50–51.Google Scholar
“Audi Cuts Targets.” Automotive News Europe 7 (6 May 2002): 16.Google Scholar
Baker, Stephen, and Woodruff, David. “Alcoa Wants to Take Its Show on the Road.” Business Week (1 Aug. 1994), 58.Google Scholar
Bergan, Martin D. “Low-Voltage Splicing and Terminating—Industrial and Commercial Buildings.” In Jointing, Splicing, and Terminating Copper and Aluminum Conductors: Eight Papers Presented in a Special Study Group, Spring 1956. New York, 1957, pp. 17–25.Google Scholar
Birch, Stuart. “Aluminum Space Frame Technology.” Automotive Engineering 102 (Jan. 1994): 70–73.Google Scholar
Canby, Thomas Y. “Aluminum, the Magic Metal.” National Geographic 145 (Aug. 1978): 186–211.Google Scholar
“Cars of the Future Will Be Made of... Steel.” Purchasing 130 (8 Feb. 2001): 32B1-32B12.Google Scholar
Chew, Edmund. “Audi Touts Aluminum in New A2.” Automotive News 74 (20 Dec. 1999): 36B.Google Scholar
Corbett, Brian. “Aluminum Answers Steel Study.” Ward’s Auto World 36 (Aug. 2000): 63.Google Scholar
Corbett, Brian.. “Seeing Stars—and Dollars.” Ward’s Automotive Age 38 (Feb. 2002): 49.Google Scholar
Cortez, John P. “Moving into the Mainstream.” Autoweek (16 May 1994), 21.Google Scholar
Daniels, G. “Controversy over Aluminum Wiring.” Popular Science 208 (May 1976): 56ff.Google Scholar
Dieffenbach, Jeff R., and Mascarin, Anthony E.. “Body-in-White Material System: A Life-Cycle Cost Comparison.” JOM: The Member Journal of the Minerals, Metals, and Materials Society 47 (June 1993): 16–19.Google Scholar
Diem, William et al. “BMW Races into Carbon Fiber.” Ward’s Auto World 38 (Sept. 2002): 9.Google Scholar
“Discussion on Aircraft Materials.” American Society for Testing Materials, Proceedings 30, pt. 2 (1930): 171–214.Google Scholar
Ditte, M. A. “Sur les proprietesde l’aluminium.” Comptes Rendus de L’Academie des Sciences 127 (1898): 919–24.Google Scholar
Fenn, Jack, Haley, Kevin, and Linden, Alexander. Management Update: The Gartner 2001 Hype Cycle Emerging Trends and Technologies. Note Number PTP-08312001-022001.Google Scholar
Fox, Bruce. “Staying Ahead of the ‘Hype Cycle’.” Chain Store Age 72 (Jan. 1996): 148.Google Scholar
Franklin Research Center. National Controlled Study of Relative Risk of Overheating of Aluminum Compared to Copper Wired Electrical Receptacles in Homes and Laboratory. Philadelphia, Pa., 1979.Google Scholar
“The Future of Aluminium.” Spectator 71 (July 1893): 76–77.Google Scholar
Ganatra, Ravindra H., and McKoon, Thomas L.. “Reliability of Connections: A Comparison of Aluminum Alloy Stranded Conductors and Electrically Equivalent Copper Conductors.” Wire Journal International 31 (July 1998): 112–23.Google Scholar
Gander, Zal S. “The Unbelievable Lightness of Being.” Asiaweek (11 Feb. 2000), ad. sect. 34.Google Scholar
Grard, Charles. “Le Siecle de l’Aluminium.” Revue Scientifique 65 (1927): 4–12, 41-48.Google Scholar
Hansberger, Bruce. “Fixit: Aluminum Wiring Used in Some Houses Is Hazardous.” Star Tribune (Minneapolis), 5 Dec. 2001, E11.Google Scholar
Henry, Jim. “Century Closes on a High: 16,958,267.” Automotive News 74 (10 Jan. 2000): 1.Google Scholar
Hoffmeister, Gunter, and Ostle, Dorothee. “Aluminum-Bodied Audi A2 Hit Hard by Quality Problems.” Automotive News 75 (4 Dec. 2000): 28EE.Google Scholar
Jeffries, Zay. “Light Metals in the Automotive Industry.” In Symposium on Developments in Automotive Materials. Philadelphia, Pa., 1930, pp. 64–77.Google Scholar
Johnson, J. B. “Metals Used in World Cruiser Airplanes.” Iron Age 114 (16 Oct. 1924): 994–95.Google Scholar
Kohl, Christian. “Audi Spotlights the ‘Age of Aluminum.’” American Metal Market 109 (27 Dec. 2001): 249.Google Scholar
Lichter, Jane. “Aluminum Applications Expand.” Advanced Materials & Processes 150 (Oct. 1996): 19.Google Scholar
“The Light Metals: A Wartime Reconnaissance of Their Postwar Position.” Business Week (28 Aug. 1943), 43–58.Google Scholar
Ken, Low. “Sweetness and Light—The Ultralight Steel Auto Body Project.” Steel Times 226 (Sep. 1998): 332–33.Google Scholar
Mackintosh, James. “Ford’s Luxury Cars May Be Built in Aluminium.” Financial Times (14 Sep. 2002), 3.Google Scholar
“Metal of the Future Is Getting There.” Business Week (24 June 1967), 116–18ff.Google Scholar
Moissan, Henri. “Sur les Applications de l’Aluminium.” Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sciences 128 (1899): 895–901.Google Scholar
North, John D. “The Case for Metal Construction.” Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society 28 (Sept. 1923): 3–25.Google Scholar
Pinkham, Myra. “Aluminum Makes Inroads in Automotive Market.” American Metal Market, Automotive Aluminum Supplement (23 March 1999), 9A.Google Scholar
Richards, Joseph W. “Aluminium—The Metal of the Future.” Cosmopolitan 12 (1892): 277–86.Google Scholar
Robinson, Aaron. “Heavy Metal Fights Rival Lightweight.” Automotive News 73 (14 June 1999): 16.Google Scholar
Rollason, M. “Increasing Use of Alloyed Aluminum as an Engineering Material.” Industrial Management 59 (May, June 1920): 387-90, 456-61.Google Scholar
Schofield, Jack, Keegan, Victor, and McIntosh, Neil. “The Hype Cycle.” Guardian (London), 3 Jan. 2002, Guardian Features Pages, 10.Google Scholar
Stoffer, Harry. “Weight Gain Makes Vehicles Thirsty.” Automotive News 77 (14 Oct. 2002): 4.Google Scholar
Symposium on the Use of Aluminum for Insulated Conductors: Ten Conference Papers Presented at the 1952 AIEE Fall General Meeting and the 1953 Winter General Meeting. New York, 1953.Google Scholar
Thaden, H. V. “Metallizing the Airplane.” ASME Transactions, Aeronautics 52 (1930): 167-72 (AER-52-22).Google Scholar
“The Trouble with Aluminum Wiring.” Consumer Reports 56 (Jan. 1981): 42–43.Google Scholar
Tylee, John. “Audi Promotes A2 with Aluminium Poster.” Campaign (U.K.) (4 May 2001), 6.Google Scholar
“Vindication of Aluminum.” Current Opinion 60 (Feb. 1916): 110.Google Scholar
Weernink, Wim Oude. “A2 Lessons Will Trim Costs of Audi A8.” Automotive News Europe 7 (17 June 2002): 26.Google Scholar
Weinberg, J., Harris, K. L., and White, G. Steel in Motor Vehicles: A 35-Year Perspective. U.S. Bureau of Mines Information Circular 9175. Washington, D.C., 1987.Google Scholar
Weingarten, Tara, and Mc, DanielGinn. “More Than Beer Cans on Wheels.” Newsweek 129 (9 June 1997): 54–55 Google Scholar
Wernle, Bradford. “Aluminum Is a Key Reason for Jaguar’s Big Losses.” Automotive News Europe 7 (7Oct. 2002): 3.Google Scholar
Wilson, I. W. “Man’s Distinctive Work.” In Proceedings ofthe Conference on the Electrical Utilization of Aluminum. New York, 1955, pp. 1–4.Google Scholar
Winter, Drew. “War of Words Heats Up.” Ward’s Auto World 35 (Oct. 1999): 81.Google Scholar
Wisehart, M. K. “The Wonder Story of Aluminum.” American Magazine 93 (1922): 62–63ff.Google Scholar
Witherall, Raoul. “The End of the Road for Aluminium Autobodies.” Aluminium Today 10 (March 1998): 28.Google Scholar
Wright, Amos W. “The Age of Aluminum.” Harper’s Weekly 34 (6 Sept. 1890): 707–8.Google Scholar
Wright, T. P. “Aircraft Engineering.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 131 (1927): 27–33.Google Scholar
Wrigley, Al. “Aluminum Revs up for More Automotive Industry Gains,” American Metal Market 109 (31 July 2001): 1.Google Scholar
Wrigley, Al. “Metals Still Ride High in Drive for Lighter Autos.” American Metal Market 108 (28 Feb. 2000): 6.Google Scholar
Wrigley, Al. “Steel Use in Autos Seen Declining.” American Metal Market 107 (1 March 1999): 8.Google Scholar

Government Documents

Bunten, Elaine D., Donaldson, John L., and McDowell, Eugene C.. Hazard Assessment of Aluminum Electrical Wiring in Residential Use. NBSIR 75677. Washington, D.C., 1974.Google Scholar
Consumer Prod. Safety Comm’n v. The Anaconda Co., 593 F.2d 1314 (D.C. Cir. 1979).Google Scholar
U. S. Congress. House. Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Hearings: Hazard Posed by “Old Technology” Aluminum Wiring Systems. 95th Cong., 2d sess. Washington, D.C., 1978.Google Scholar
U. S. Congress. Senate. Special Committee to Study and Survey Problems of Small Business Enterprises. Hearings: The Future of Light Metals, with Particular Reference to the Interests of Small Business. 79th Cong., 1st sess., part 49. Washington, D.C., 1945.Google Scholar
U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Repairing Aluminum Wiring. Washington, D.C., 1998.Google Scholar
U.S. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. Annual Report, 6th. Washington, D.C., 1920.Google Scholar

Archival Source

Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) Records, 1888-1990, Historical Society of Western Pennsylvania Archives, Pittsburgh, Pa.Google Scholar

Online and Digital Sources

The Aluminum Association Web Site. “Automotive Aluminum.” URL: http://www.autoaluminum.org/.Google Scholar
American Iron and Steel Institute Web Site. “Steelworks.” URL: http://www.steel.org/autosteel/.Google Scholar
Arthur, W. Brian with Dominic Gates. “The PreText Interview.” PreText Magazine, May/June 1998. URL: http://www.pretext.com/may98/columns/intview.htm.Google Scholar
“Car Review: Stuart Bladon Assesses Six Contenders from the Battle for Best Small Family Hatchback.” In Gear Wheels: The Online Motoring Magazine, Autumn 2002. URL: http://www.gearwheelsmag.co.uk/features/car-review.htm.Google Scholar
The Color of Trust: A Comparison of Copper versus Aluminum Electrical Wire and Cable. Publication No. 33E. Don Mills, Ontario: Canadian Copper and Brass Development Association, 1997. URL: http://www.ccbda.org/pdfs/33e.pdf.Google Scholar
U.S. Geological Survey. Mineral Commodity Summaries, 2002. Washington, D.C., 2002. URL: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/mcs/.Google Scholar
U.S. Geological Survey. Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States, U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 01-006, version 5.3, modified May 7, 2002. URL: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/of01-006/.Google Scholar
U.S. Geological Survey. Minerals Yearbook 2000. Washington, D.C., 2001. URL: http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/myb.html.Google Scholar