Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-tf8b9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-20T11:36:27.188Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Predictors of personal, perceived and self-stigma towards anxiety and depression

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 March 2015

J. Busby Grant ,
C. P. Bruce  and
P. J. Batterham
J. Busby Grant*
Affiliation:
Centre for Applied Psychology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
C. P. Bruce
Affiliation:
Centre for Applied Psychology, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
P. J. Batterham
Affiliation:
National Institute for Mental Health Research, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr J. B. Grant, Centre for Applied Psychology, University of Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia. (Email: Janie.BusbyGrant@canberra.edu.au)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Stigma towards individuals experiencing a mental illness is associated with a range of negative psychological, social and financial outcomes. Factors associated with stigma remain unclear; the relationship between stigma and various personal factors may depend on both the type of disorder being stigmatised and what type of stigma is assessed. Different forms of stigma include personal stigma (negative attitudes towards others), perceived stigma (perceived attitudes of others) and self-stigma (self-attribution of others’ negative attitudes).

Method

Three hundred and fifty university students and members of the general public completed an online survey assessing contact with and knowledge of both depression and anxiety, age, gender, current depression and anxiety symptoms, and personal, perceived and self-stigma for both depression and anxiety.

Results

Greater contact with, and knowledge of that illness predicted lower personal stigma for both anxiety and depression. Participants with greater levels of current depression symptomatology and females, reported higher perceived stigma towards depression. Males reported higher personal stigma for anxiety. For both anxiety and depression, higher current symptomatology was associated with greater levels of self-stigma towards the illness.

Conclusions

Findings confirm the role of contact and knowledge in personal stigma for both disorders, consistent with previous findings. This finding also supports evidence that interventions addressing these factors are associated with a decline in personal stigma. However, lack of relationship between contact with, and knowledge of a mental illness and perceived and self-stigma for either depression or anxiety suggests that these factors may not play a major role in perceived or self-stigma. The identification of symptomatology as a key factor associated with self-stigma for both anxiety and depression is significant, and has implications for community-wide interventions aiming to increase help-seeking behaviour, as well as individual treatment strategies for clinicians. Further research should examine whether these relationships hold for groups with clinically diagnosed depression and anxiety disorders.

Keywords

Anxiety stigmamental health literacyself-stigmastigma
Type
Original Articles
Information
Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences , Volume 25 , Issue 3 , June 2016 , pp. 247 - 254
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2015 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aromaa, E, Tolvanen, A, Tuulari, J, Wahlbeck, K (2011). Personal stigma and use of mental health services among people with depression in a general population in Finland. BMC Psychiatry 11, 52.Google Scholar
Barney, L, Griffiths, K, Jorm, A, Christensen, H (2006). Stigma about depression and its impact on help-seeking intentions. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 40, 51–54.Google Scholar
Barney, L, Griffiths, K, Christensen, H, Jorm, A (2010). The Self-Stigma of Depression Scale (SSDS): development and psychometric evaluation of a new instrument. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 19, 243–254.Google Scholar
Batterham, PJ, Griffiths, KM, Barney, LJ, Parsons, A (2013). Predictors of generalized anxiety disorder stigma. Psychiatry research 206(2), 282–286.Google Scholar
Birchwood, M, Trowera, P, Bruneta, K, Gilbert, P, Iqbac, Z, Jackson, C (2006). Social anxiety and the shame of psychosis: a study in first episode psychosis. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45, 1025–1037.Google Scholar
Calear, A, Griffiths, K, Christensen, H (2011). Personal and perceived depression stigma in Australian adolescents: magnitude and predictors. Journal of Affective Disorders 129, 104–108.Google Scholar
Chowdhury, AN, Sanyal, D, Bhattacharya, A, Dutta, SK, De, R, Banerjee, S, Weiss, MG (2001). Prominence of symptoms and level of stigma among depressed patients in Calcutta. Journal of the Indian Medical Association 99(1), 20–23.Google Scholar
Christensen, H, Batterham, P, Busby Grant, J, Griffiths, K, Mackinnon, A (2011). A population study comparing screening performance of prototypes for depression and anxiety with standard scales. BMC Medical Research Methodology 11, 1–9.Google Scholar
Clement, S, Schauman, O, Graham, T, Maggioni, F, Evans-Lacko, S, Bezborodovs, N, Morgan, C, Rüsch, N, Brown, J, Thornicroft, G (2014). What is the impact of mental health-related stigma on help-seeking? A systematic review of quantitative and qualitative studies. Psychological Medicine 6, 1–17.Google Scholar
Copelj, A, Kiropoulos, L (2011). Knowledge of depression and depression related stigma in immigrants from former Yugoslavia. Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health 13, 1013–1018.Google Scholar
Corrigan, P, Watson, A (2002). Understanding the impact of stigma on people with mental illness. World Psychiatry 1, 16–20.Google Scholar
Corrigan, P, Edwards, A, Green, A, Diwan, S, Penn, D (2001). Prejudice, social distance, and familiarity with mental illness. Schizophrenia Bulletin 27, 219–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Corrigan, P, Morris, S, Michaels, P, Rafacz, J, Rüsch, N (2012). Challenging the public stigma of mental illness: a meta-analysis of outcome studies. Psychiatric Services 63, 963–973.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Day, E, Edgren, K, Eshleman, A (2007). Measuring stigma toward mental illness: development and application of the Mental Illness Stigma scale. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 37, 2191–2219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gabriel, A, Violato, C (2009). The development of a knowledge test of depression and its treatment for patients suffering from non-psychotic depression: a psychometric assessment. BMC Psychiatry 9.Google Scholar
Griffiths, K, Batterham, P, Barney, L, Parsons, A (2011). The generalised anxiety stigma scale (GASS): psychometric properties in a community sample. BMC Psychiatry 11, 184–193.Google Scholar
Griffiths, K, Carron-Arthur, B, Parsons, A, Reid, R (2014). Effectiveness of programs for reducing the stigma associated with mental disorders. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. World Psychiatry 13, 161–175.Google Scholar
Griffiths, K, Christensen, H, Jorm, A (2008). Predictors of depression stigma. BMC Psychiatry 8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Griffiths, K, Christensen, H, Jorm, A, Evans, K, Groves, C (2004). Effect of web-based depression literacy and cognitive-behavioural therapy interventions on stigmatising attitudes to depression: randomised controlled trial. British Journal of Psychiatry 185, 342–349.Google Scholar
Griffiths, K, Nakane, Y, Christensen, H, Yoshioka, K, Jorm, A, Nakane, H (2006). Stigma in response to mental disorders: a comparison of Australia and Japan. BMC Psychiatry 6, 21–33.Google Scholar
Gulliver, A, Griffiths, K, Christensen, H, Mackinnon, A, Calear, A, Parsons, A, Stanimirovic, R (2012). Internet-based interventions to promote mental health help-seeking in elite athletes: an exploratory randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 14, 69.Google Scholar
Hoge, C, Castro, C, Messer, S, McGurk, D, Cotting, D, Koffman, R (2004). Combat duty in Iraq and Afghanistan, mental health problems, and barriers to care. New England Journal of Medicine 351, 13–22.Google Scholar
Holmes, E, Corrigan, P, Williams, P, Canar, J, Kubiak, M (1999). Changing attitudes about schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 25, 447–456.Google Scholar
Ilic, M, Bohner, G, Hans-Onno, R, Beblo, T, Driessen, M, Frommberger, U, Corrigan, P (2012). Protecting self-esteem from stigma: a test of different strategies for coping with the stigma of mental illness. International Journal of Social Psychiatry 58, 246–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jorm, A (2000). Mental health literacy: public knowledge and beliefs about mental disorders. The British Journal of Psychiatry 177, 396–401.Google Scholar
Jorm, A, Wright, A (2008). Influences on young people's stigmatising attitudes towards peers with mental disorders: national survey of young Australians and their parents. The British Journal of Psychiatry 192, 144–149.Google Scholar
Kiropoulos, L, Griffiths, K, Blashki, G (2011). Effects of a multilingual information website intervention on the levels of depression literacy and depression-related stigma in Greek-born and Italian-born immigrants living in Australia: randomized controlled trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research 13, 19–33.Google Scholar
Kroenke, K, Lowe, B, Spitzer, R, Williams, J (2006). A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the Gad-7. Archives of Internal Medicine 166, 1092–1097.Google Scholar
Lauber, C, Nordt, C, Falcato, L, Rossler, W (2004). Factors influencing social distance toward people with mental illness. Community Mental Health Journal 40, 265–274.Google Scholar
Lysaker, P, Roe, D, Ringer, J, Gilmore, E, Yanos, P (2011). Change in Self-Stigma among persons with schizophrenia enrolled in rehabilitation: associations with self-esteem and positive and emotional discomfort symptoms. Psychological Services. Advanced online publication.Google Scholar
Masuda, A, Price, M, Anderson, P, Schmertz, S, Calamaras, M (2009). The role of psychological flexibility in mental health stigma and psychological distress for the stigmatizer. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 28, 1244–1262.Google Scholar
Pyne, J, Kuc, E, Schroeder, P, Fortney, J, Edlund, M, Sullivan, G (2004). Relationship between perceived stigma and depression severity. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 192, 278–283.Google Scholar
Radloff, L (1977). The CES-D scale: a self report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement 1, 385–401.Google Scholar
Raguram, R, Weiss, M, Channabasavanna, S, Devins, G (1996). Stigma, depression, and somatization in South India. The American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 1043–1049.Google Scholar
Rickwood, D, Deane, F, Wilson, C, Ciarrochi, J (2005). Young people's help-seeking for mental health problems. Advances in Mental Health 4, 218–251.Google Scholar
Ritsher, J, Phelan, J (2004). Internalized stigma predicts erosion of morale among psychiatric outpatients. Psychiatry Research 129, 257–265.Google Scholar
Roeloffs, C, Sherbourne, C, Unützer, J, Fink, A, Tang, L, Wells, K.B. (2003). Stigma and depression among primary care patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 25(5), 311–315.Google Scholar
Rüsch, N, Angermeyer, M, Corrigan, P (2005). Mental illness stigma: concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry 20, 529–539.Google Scholar
Rüsch, N, Corrigan, PW, Wassel, A, Michaels, P, Olschewski, M, Wilkniss, S, Batia, K (2009). Ingroup perception and responses to stigma among persons with mental illness. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavia 12(4), 320–328.Google Scholar
Sirey, J, Bruce, M, Alexopoulos, G, Perlick, D, Friedman, S, Meyers, B (2001a). Perceived stigma and patient-rated severity of illness as predictors of antidepressant drug adherence. Psychiatric Services 52, 1615–20.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sirey, J, Bruce, M, Alexopoulos, G, Perlick, D, Raue, P, Friedman, S, Meyers, B (2001b). Perceived stigma as a predictor of treatment discontinuation in young and older outpatients with depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 158, 479–481.Google Scholar
Taylor-Rodgers, E, Batterham, P (2014). Evaluation of an online psychoeducation intervention to promote mental health help seeking attitudes and intentions among young adults: randomised controlled trial. Journal of Affective Disorders 168, 65–71.Google Scholar
Ventieri, D, Clarke, D, Hay, M (2011). The effects of a school-based educational intervention on pre-adolescents’ knowledge of and attitudes towards mental illness. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion 4, 5–17.Google Scholar
Wang, J, Lai, D (2008). The relationship between mental health literacy, personal contacts and personal stigma against depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 110, 191–196.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wang, P, Berglund, P, Kessler, R (2000). Recent care of common mental disorders in the United States; prevalence and conformance with evidence-based recommendations. Journal of General Internal Medicine 15, 284–292.Google Scholar
Ward, E, Heidrich, S (2009). African American women's beliefs about mental illness, stigma, and preferred coping behaviors. Research in Nursing & Health 32, 480–492.Google Scholar
Yap, M, Mackinnon, A, Reavley, N, Jorm, A (2014). The measurement properties of stigmatizing attitudes towards mental disorders: results from two community surveys. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 23, 49–61.Google Scholar
Yen, CF, Chen, CC, Lee, Y, Tang, TC, Yen, JY, Ko, CH (2005). Self-stigma and its correlates among outpatients with depressive disorders. Psychiatric Services 56, 599–601.Google Scholar