1. Virgils epische Technik (Leipzig and Berlin, 3rd ed. 1915), pp. 271–80Google Scholar.

2. Heinze (n. 1), p. 277; cf. Büchner, K., ‘P. Vergilius Maro’, RE 8A, 2 (1958), 1455Google Scholar, who calls the Aeneid ‘ein Drama des Sichfindens’.

3. In addition to the scholars mentioned below, cf. Fowler, W. W., The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1911), pp. 410–14Google Scholar; Poe, J. P., TAPA 96 (1965), 321–36, esp. 32If.Google Scholar: ‘Whether or not it can be said that Aeneas’ ‘character' develops within the course of the epic, at least his attitude develops’; Liebermann, W.-L., Studien zum antiken Epos, Beiträge zur klassischen Philologie 72 (1976), 173–207, esp. 184 and 195–8Google Scholar, sees Aeneas' ‘Wandlung von Entfremdung und Fremdbestimmung zu Selbstfindung, Selbstverwirklichung und Engagement in Uebernahme und Aneignung der Aufgabe’ after he has left Dido.

4. CF 26(1930–1931), 182–93Google Scholar.

5. Cf. Howe (n. 4), 185–9.

6. Eranos 43 (1945), 111–35Google Scholar.

7. Cf. Carlsson (n. 6), 121 and 128.

8. Heinze (n. 1), pp. 278–80.

9. Cf. also Bowra, C. M., G&R 3 (1933–1934), 8–21Google Scholar. On the Stoic qualities of Aeneas, cf. also Lyne, R. O. A. M., Further Voices in Vergil's Aeneid (Oxford, 1987), pp. 182fGoogle Scholar.

10. AJP 80 (1959), 150–61Google Scholar.

11. Sullivan (n. 10), 159.

12. Virgil, a Study in Civilized Poetry (Oxford, 1963), pp. 219–23Google Scholar.

13. Otis (n. 12), p. 219; cf. 311.

14. The Cambridge History of Classical Literature, Vol. II: Latin Literature, ed. Kenney, E. J. and Clausen, W. V. (Cambridge, 1982), pp. 333–70, esp. 346–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

15. Burck, E., Wege zu Vergil, ed.Oppermann, H. (Darmstadt, 1966), pp. 233–69Google Scholar.

16. Burck (n. 15), p. 256.

17. Das römische Epos, ed. Burck, E. (Darmstadt, 1979), pp. 51–119, esp. 88Google Scholar.

18. The Art of Vergil: Image and Symbol in the Aeneid (Ann Arbor, 1968), pp. 54ffGoogle Scholar.

19. Burck (n. 15), p. 255.

20. With the exception of Camps, W. A., An Introduction to Virgil's Aeneid (Oxford, 3rd edition 1982), pp. 7 and 25fGoogle Scholar.

21. Arethusa 14 (1981), 157–75Google Scholar.

22. Virgil, Greece & Rome New Surveys in the Classics No. l (Oxford, 1967), p. 31Google Scholar.

23. Otis (n. 12), p. 361; cf. Sullivan (n. 10), 160.

24. So Williams, , The Aeneid of Virgil, vol. II (London, 2nd edition 1977), p. 320Google Scholar.

25. Cf., e.g., Howe (n. 4), 187; Otis (n. 12), pp. 102 and 231; Williams, , The Aeneid of Virgil, vol. I (London, 1972), pp. 167 and 168 (ad 1. 92 and 94f.)Google Scholar; Morris, B., Proceedings of the Virgil Society 9 (1969–1970), 21Google Scholar; Lyne (n. 9), p. 107; Quinn, K., Virgil's Aeneid, a Critical Description (London, 1968), p. 102Google Scholar.

26. Cf. ‘ingemere’ in 1. 208f. (after landing in Africa): ‘suspirare’ in 371 and ‘queri’ in 385 (complaining of his ill fortune and bewailing the loss of his companions); ‘timor’ in 450 (his fear of the unknown land is soothed); ‘lacrimare’ in 459 and ‘gemitus’ in 485 (at the sight of the pictures of the Trojan War on the temple of Juno in Carthage); ‘turbati animi’ in 515 (worried about the uncertain situation).

27. 279–88 (Aeneas' vision of Hector); 735–804 (the loss of Creusa).

28. 10f. (leaving Troy); 29^18 (at the appearance of the unburied Polydorus); 172–9 (after the prophecy of the penates in Crete).

29. 279–95 (after Mercury has told him to leave Carthage); 393–6 (when Dido appeals to him to stay).

30. 700–20 (after the Trojan women have set fire to the Trojan ships); 867–6. 1 (after the death of Palinurus).

31. 156–8, 175f., 185–9, 290–4, 317–20, 331f., 559–61, 695–702, 710–12.

32. 1. 305–9 (deciding to explore the unknown country); 4. 279–95 (cf. n. 29); 5. 700–3 (cf. n. 30); 6. 185–9 (at the sight of the forest where the golden bough is hidden); 331f. (at the sight of the shades gathered by Cocytus' stream).

33. 10. 821–4 (after killing Lausus); 11. 2–29, 39–63, 94–99 (at the funeral of Pallas).

34. 8. 18–30 (in fear of the Latins); 67–80 (after the instruction by Tiberinus); 520–3 (after Evander' speech); 10. 217f. (on the way back to the battlefield); 12. 486f. (fighting against Turnus).

35. Stahl (n. 21), 160–2; Williams, , The Aeneid of Virgil vol. I (n. 25), p. 167Google Scholar.

36. On the question of similarities and differences between the Homeric heroes and Aeneas, cf. esp. MacKay, L. A., TAPA 88 (1957), 11–16Google Scholar; Haecker, T., Virgil, a Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Commager, S. (New Jersey, 1966), pp. 68–74Google Scholar; van Nortwick, T., TAPA 110 (1980), 303–14Google Scholar; Lyne (n. 9), pp. 104–13.

37. 18. 22–7, 70–126; 23. 59–61; 24. 122–40, 507–17.

38. Od.5. 84, 151–9; 8. 86, 93, 531f.; 19. 204, 212; etc.

39. Il. 22. 90–130.

40. 22. 143–66 and 188–201.

41. This is evident from the passage at the beginning of book 16 of the Iliad where Achilles himself makes reproaches to Patroklos (7–11).

42. 1. 180–209 (after landing in Africa, in search of food, cheering his companions); 305–84 (going to Carthage to explore the unknown country).

43. 1. 544–78 (Aeneas in the judgement of Dido); 579–656 (during the first encounter with Dido); 4. 141–50 (the hunting party); 259–64 (superintending the building of the city); 287–95 (giving orders for the departure); 331–61 (Aeneas' attempt to make Dido understand the inescapable importance of his mission); 396 (preparing the departure of the fleet); 571–80 (awakening his men and departing).

44. 2. 302–22, 336–60, 382–401, 437–44, 458f. (fighting in Troy); 632–6, 671–804, cf. esp. 671f., 707–23, 796–804 (rescuing his family); 3. 16–18 (founding the city of Aenus in Thrace); 18–21 (making offerings to his mother); 132–4 (founding the city of Pergama in Crete); 234–7 (fighting against the Harpies); 286–9 (dedicating the shield of Abas to Apollo at Actium); 298–300 (visiting Andromache and Helenus).

45. 5. 26–31 (giving order to land in Sicily); 42–99, 129–31, 258–62, 282–92, 303–14, 348–67, 424f., 461–7, 485–9, 529–40, 545–52 (supervising the games in honour of Anchises); 755–7 (founding the city of Segesta); 770–6 (leaving Sicily); 827–9. 867f. (Aeneas as the admiral of the ship); 6. 9–11, 103–24 (visiting the Sibyl); 183–200, 210f. (searching for the golden bough); 232–6 (burying Misenus); 249–54 (making offerings to Hecate); 263 (going down to the Underworld with the Sibyl, fearless, cf. 403f.); 899f. (coming back to his comrades).

46. 7. 5–7 (burying his old nurse and leaving Cumae); 107–40 (landing in Latium); 152–9 (organizing the camp in Latium); 8. 530–53 (preparing the war against the Latins); 10. 146—62, 249–62, 287f. (asking Tarchon for help and going back to the battlefield); 11. 2–28 (dedicating Mezentius’ arms to the gods); 59–84 (at the burial of Pallas); 106–19 (granting the armistice); 184f. (at the burial of those who die in the war); 282–92 (as a warrior in the judgement of Diomedes); 12. 166–94 (worshipping the gods and swearing). All the following are battle scenes: 11. 904–12; 12. 107–12, 311–23, 481–508, 525–41, 554–83, 697–724, 760–91, 887–93, 919–21, 938–52.

47. Cf. Morris (n. 25), 32. Otis (n. 12), p. 315, too, states that Aeneas is ‘seemingly eclipsed by the exploits of both Trojan and Latins’ but is given pre-eminence by his ‘immunity from moral failure’.

48. Williams, , The Aeneid of Virgil vol. II (n. 24), pp. 165–7Google Scholar, compares the behaviour of Aeneas after the death of Pallas to the ‘wild scenes’ of book 2 and then draws his conclusion that ‘all the lessons of the subsequent years… are now forgotten as he kills indiscriminately’. As a consequence of Aeneas’ conviction after book 6 that everything he does from this point on is undoubtedly right, Wilson, J. R., G&R 16 (1969), 72Google Scholar, sees in Aeneas a new state of mind which can only be called ‘grim’: ‘[Aeneas] is taking a certain illicit advantage of Pallas’ death to insist on a narrow “pietas” and at the same time throw away the real moral superiority which he had previously shown over his enemies.’ Putnam, M. C. J., The Poetry of the Aeneid (Cambridge, Mass., 1965), pp. 151–202Google Scholar, speaks about Aeneas as the merciless killer instead of as ‘pius’ Aeneas, who did not punish Turnus but killed him senselessly. Cf. also Quinn (n. 25), pp. 1–22.

49. Stahl (n. 21), 165–7.

50. Cf. Reinhold, M., C&M 27 (1966), 195–207Google Scholar; Sage, E. T., CJ 15 (1919–1920), 350–7, esp. 353Google Scholar.

51. Pöschl (n. 18), p. 58; cf. Burck, , Das römische Epos (n. 17), p. 88Google Scholar. There remains the question of whether or not Vergil intended the Dido episode to be a step in the development of Aeneas' personality. In this episode, the temptation of finding a home after his wanderings comes near and Aeneas runs the risk of forgetting his followers, his duty to Ascanius, and his divine mission. That Aeneas gets over these difficulties is usually regarded as proof of the progress which he makes in the process of full character development: cf. Howe (n. 4), 188f.; Sullivan (n. 10); Otis (n. 12), pp. 90f.; Poe (n. 3), 322. But if we say that part of the plot of the Aeneid was the fulfillment of duty, we can also say that the Dido episode has the effect of showing Aeneas' devotion to duty.

52. Cf. Heinze (n. 1), p. 272 n. 1: ‘Eine ganz andere Frage ist die, ob es Vergil gelungen ist, seine Intention [i.e. to show the development of Aeneas' personality] energisch zum Ausdruck zu bringen.’

53. The poet of the Iliadtoo made his readers clearly distinguish between the irreconciliable Achilles of the beginning of the poem and the yielding hero at the end.

54. Cf. Moseley, N., CJ 20 (1924–1925), 387–400, esp. 391 and 394–7Google Scholar; Brisson, J.-P., Latomus 31 (1972), 379–412, esp. 389Google Scholar.

55. Williams, , CHLL (n. 14), pp. 352f.Google Scholar; cf. n. 48 above.

56. Otis(n. 12), pp. 40ff.

57. A&A 21 (1975), 36–57Google Scholar.

58. The German term is ‘Entwichlungsroma’.

59. Cf. Poschl (n. 18), p. 58; Burck, , Wege zu Vergil (n. 15), p. 256Google Scholar. As Howe (n. 4), 182–4 points out, ‘the fiction of the Greeks and Romans shows little knowledge of the development of character as a feature of portrayal’. It is true that in the Hellenistic period, under influence from works of history, biography, and the tragedians, the interests of writers shifted ‘from mere deeds and happenings to the inner motives and impulses of an individual that precede and determine the action’. But this does not necessarily imply the development of a hero's personality. Therefore, according to Howe, who interprets the Aeneidas a poem showing the gradual development of Aeneas’ character, Vergil's portrayal of Aeneas is the great exception among all other literature of his own and earlier times.

60. Pöschl (n. 18), p. 58.

61. This is pointed out by Howe (n. 4), 184f.

62. On Vergil's characterization of Aeneas, cf. Lyne (n. 9), pp. 145–202.