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CATHEDRALS, LAUDIANISM, AND THE BRITISH CHURCHES*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  03 November 2010

IAN ATHERTON
IAN ATHERTON*
Affiliation:
Keele University
*
Department of History, School of Humanities, Keele University, ST5 5BGi.j.atherton@his.keele.ac.uk
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Abstract

Recent research has argued that English cathedrals, particularly but not exclusively Westminster Abbey, formed a ‘liturgical fifth column’ in the church and were the Trojan horse by which Laudianism – the ceremonial, clericalist, anti-Calvinist policies associated with Charles I and William Laud in the 1620s and 1630s – was introduced into the English church. This article re-examines links between cathedrals and Laudianism, not just in England, but also in the associated Protestant state churches of Charles's other realms: Ireland and Scotland. Laudian divines emphasized cathedrals as liturgical showcases, ‘mother churches’ which their ‘daughters’, the parish churches, should follow in the policy of the ‘beauty of holiness’, particularly the placing, railing of, and reverence to the Laudian altar. However, cathedrals are shown to be more diverse than historians have generally allowed, and Laudian policies are shown to have been grafted on to cathedrals, rather than emerging from them. Caroline cathedrals were more the victims of Laudianism than its midwives.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Historical Journal , Volume 53 , Issue 4 , December 2010 , pp. 895 - 918
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

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Footnotes

*

I am grateful to the Revd Dr Jane Tillier, the editor of this journal, and the two anonymous readers for their comments on drafts of this article, the research and writing of which were facilitated by grants from the Arts and Humanities Research Council, British Academy, and Leverhulme Trust. I am indebted to the many who have helped my research in various ways, including Professor Kenneth Fincham, Dr Raymond Gillespie, Professor Ann Hughes, Canon Dr Judith Maltby, Dr Sarah Poynting, Dr Raymond Refaussé, the Revd Dr James Saunders, and Dr Nigel Tringham.

References

1 D. MacCulloch, The later Reformation in England, 1547–1603 (2nd edn, Basingstoke, 2001), especially pp. 29, 142.

2 MacCulloch, Later Reformation, pp. 79–81, 85; idem, ‘The latitude of the Church of England’, in K. Fincham and P. Lake, eds., Religious politics in post-Reformation England: essays in honour of Nicholas Tyacke (Woodbridge, 2006), pp. 47–8; idem, ‘The myth of the English Reformation’, Journal of British Studies, 30, (1991), pp. 8–9Google Scholar; idem, ‘Putting the English Reformation on the map’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 15 (2005), especially pp. 90–2; idem, ‘The change of religion’, in P. Collinson, ed., The sixteenth century (Oxford, 2002), pp. 105–6.

3 R. Houlbrooke, ‘Refoundation and Reformation, 1538–1628’, in I. Atherton et al., eds., Norwich Cathedral: church, city and diocese, 1096–1996 (London, 1996), p. 538; P. Collinson, ‘The Protestant cathedral, 1541–1660’, in P. Collinson, N. Ramsay, and M. Sparks, eds., A history of Canterbury Cathedral (Oxford, 1995), pp. 154–203.

4 Houlbrooke, ‘Refoundation and Reformation’, pp. 538–9.

5 MacCulloch, ‘Change of religion’, p. 106.

6 In addition to Westminster, Manchester, Ripon, Southwell, Windsor, and Wolverhampton collegiate churches survived the Reformation or were refounded under Elizabeth and James. P. Jeffery, The collegiate churches of England and Wales (London, 2004), pp. 37–9, 456. A small number of collegiate churches also survived in Ireland: Calendar of state papers, domestic, 1684–1685, pp. 119, 143.

7 W. Lyndwood, Provinciale seu constitutiones Angliae (Oxford, 1679), p. 14.

8 Westminster Abbey was often mistaken for a cathedral: W. S. Powell, ed., John Pory, 1572–1636 (Chapel Hill, NC, 1977), microfiche, pp. 327, 329; J. O. Halliwell, ed., The autobiography and correspondence of Sir Simonds D'Ewes (2 vols., London, 1845), i, p. 273; J. Vicars, Gods arke overtopping the worlds waves (London, 1646), sig. s2v; The National Archives (TNA), SP25/13, fo. 25r; W. Sanderson, A compleat history of the life and raigne of King Charles (London, 1658), p. 888; M. Stevenson, Florus Britannicus (London, 1662), p. 42.

9 MacCulloch, Later Reformation, pp. 80–1; idem, Tudor church militant: Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation (London, 1999), pp. 204–13; idem, ‘Latitude’, pp. 47–8; idem, review of S. Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, in Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 48 (1997), p. 581.

10 Merritt, J., ‘The cradle of Laudianism? Westminster Abbey, 1558–1630’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 52, (2001), pp. 623–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, The social world of early modern Westminster: Abbey, court and community, 1515–1640 (Manchester, 2005), p. 325. Similar views are advanced by Collinson, Patrick, ‘Elizabeth I and the verdicts of history’, Historical Research, 76 (2003), p. 476CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and in K. Fincham and N. Tyacke, Altars restored: the changing face of English religious worship, 1547–c. 1700 (Oxford, 2007), pp. 82–3.

11 G. Parry, The arts of the Anglican Counter-Reformation: glory, Laud and honour (Woodbridge, 2006), p. 51; P. Marshall, Reformation England, 1480–1642 (London, 2003), p. 133. Both Parry and Marshall claim that Merritt argued that Westminster was a cradle of Laudianism. See also A. Ryrie, The age of Reformation: the Tudor and Stewart realms, 1485–1603 (Harlow, 2009), p. 287.

12 A. Peel, ed., The seconde parte of a register (2 vols., Cambridge, 1915), ii, pp. 208–11; Corpus Christi College, Oxford, MS 206, fos. 9v–10r, 12r. For puritan criticisms of cathedrals see also M. C. Cross, ‘“Dens of loitering lubbers”: Protestant protest against cathedral foundations, 1540–1640’, in D. Baker, ed., Schism, heresy and religious protest (Ecclesiastical History Society, Studies in Church History, 9, 1972), pp. 231–7.

13 Morrill, J., ‘A British patriarchy? Ecclesiastical imperialism under the early Stuarts’, in A. Fletcher and P. Roberts, eds., Religion, culture and society in early modern Britain (Cambridge, 1994), p. 210. For the argument that the English and Irish churches grew into very differing beasts, see A. Ford, ‘Dependent or independent? The Church of Ireland and its colonial context’, Seventeenth Century, 10, (1995), pp. 163–87Google Scholar, and idem, ‘The Church of Ireland, 1558–1634: a puritan church?’, in A. Ford, J. McGuire, and K. Milne, eds., As by law established: the Church of Ireland since the Reformation (Dublin, 1995), pp. 52–68.

14 On English cathedrals, see S. Lehmberg, The Reformation of cathedrals: cathedrals in English society, 1485–1603 (Princeton, NJ, 1988) and idem, Cathedrals under siege: cathedrals in English society, 1600–1700 (Exeter, 1996); on Irish, P. Galloway, The cathedrals of Ireland (Belfast, 1992); and on Scottish, P. Galloway, The cathedrals of Scotland (Dalkeith, 2000).

15 C. Diamond, ‘The cathedral system of Ireland in the Stuart period, 1603–1691’ (Ph.D. thesis, Trinity College, Dublin, 2007), pp. 170–1, 219; Morrill, ‘British patriarchy?’, p. 217. Morrill notes that no English were intruded into Scotland: the rewards in terms of souls to be saved or money to be made were too few to attract English clergy from the richer temporal rewards of England or spiritual ones of Ireland.

16 B. Rich, A new description of Ireland (London, 1610), p. 55.

17 A. Spicer, ‘“Laudianism” in Scotland? St Giles’ Cathedral, Edinburgh, 1633–1639 – a reappraisal', Architectural History, 46, (2003), pp. 102–4; M. Wood, ed., Extracts from the records of the burgh of Edinburgh, 1626 to 1641 (Edinburgh, 1936), p. 174; D. Lindsay, A treatise of the ceremonies of the church (London, 1625).

18 National Library of Scotland, Wodrow MS Quarto ix, fos. 408r, 346r.

19 Morrill, ‘British patriarchy?’ See also J. McCafferty, ‘John Bramhall and the Church of Ireland in the 1630s’, in Ford et al., eds., As by law established, pp. 101–2.

20 J. Nichols, ed., The progresses and public processions of Queen Elizabeth (3 vols., London, 1823), i, pp. 76–9, 209–10, 340, 347, 353, 529, 538–9, ii, pp. 150, 508–21, 537–9; J. Gairdner, ed., Three fifteenth-century chronicles (Camden Society, second series, 28, 1880), pp. 129–30; E. Ashmole, The institution, laws & ceremonies of the most noble order of the Garter (London, 1672); F. Bussby, Winchester Cathedral, 1079–1979 ([Southampton], 1979), p. 122.

21 Houlbrooke, ‘Refoundation and Reformation’, p. 521; Historical Manuscripts Commission (HMC), Calendar of the manuscripts of the dean and chapter of Wells (2 vols., London, 1907–14), ii, p. 392; D. Keene et al., eds., St Paul's: the cathedral church of London, 604–2004 (New Haven, CT, and London, 2004), pp. 60, 72, 159; HMC, Fourth Report (London, 1874), p. 155; National Library of Wales, LL/Ch/3 (I am grateful to Nigel Coulton for a translation).

22 D. Marcombe, ‘The Durham dean and chapter: old abbey writ large’, in R. O'Day and F. Heal, eds., Continuity and change: personnel and administration of the Church of England, 1500–1642 (Leicester, 1976), pp. 128–34.

23 W. Prynne, Canterburies doome (London, 1646), p. 77; P. Heylyn, Cyprianus Anglicus (London, 1668), p. 69; S. Eward, ed., Gloucester Cathedral chapter act book, 1616–1687 (Gloucestershire Record Series, 21, 2007), pp. xxvi, 3–4, 7–10, 12–13.

24 N. Tyacke, ‘Archbishop Laud’, in K. Fincham, ed., The early Stuart church, 1603–1642 (Basingstoke, 1993), p. 61; Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, pp. 8–9. For the date of the change, see P. Smart, A sermon preached in the cathedrall church of Durham, Iuly, 7. 1628 (London, 1640), p. 36.

25 L. Andrewes, A sermon preached before His Maiestie (London, 1618); N. Tyacke, ‘Lancelot Andrewes and the myth of Anglicanism’, in P. Lake and M. Questier, eds., Conformity and orthodoxy in the English church, c. 1560–1660 (Woodbridge, 2000), pp. 30–1.

26 Prynne, Canterburies doome, pp. 77–8.

27 A. Milton, ‘The creation of Laudianism: a new approach’, in T. Cogswell, R. Cust, and P. Lake, eds., Politics, religion and popularity in early Stuart Britain (Cambridge, 2002), pp. 162–84.

28 Eward, ed., Gloucester Cathedral chapter act book, p. 3. There was no mention of rails for the table, probably because there were none in the royal chapels until the mid 1620s. Tyacke, ‘Andrewes’, p. 32.

29 E.g. HMC, Fourth report, p. 146; Lambeth Palace Library, MS 943, pp. 475ff.

30 D. J. Crankshaw, ‘Community, city and nation, 1540–1714’, in Keene et al., eds., St Paul's, pp. 53–4.

31 C. Wren, Parentialia (London, 1750), pp. 75, 77.

32 Prynne, Canterburies doome, p. 77. See also the annotation, using the same words and probably by Prynne, on Laud's justification to the bishop of Gloucester: TNA, SP14/90, fo. 177r.

33 On Laudian readings of the Reformation, see A. Milton, Catholic and Reformed: the Roman and Protestant churches in English Protestant thought, 1600–1640 (Cambridge, 1995), pp. 308, 315–40, idem, Laudian and royalist polemic in seventeenth-century England: the career and writings of Peter Heylyn (Manchester, 2007), pp. 83–8, and Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 174.

34 Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 119.

35 Nicholas Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists: the rise of English Arminianism, c. 1590–1640 (Oxford, 1987), p. 118; Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 232.

36 W. Notestein and F. H. Relf, eds., Commons debates for 1629 (Minneapolis, MN, 1921), p. 144.

37 Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 233 n. 28.

38 On the importance of these see Fincham, K., ‘The restoration of altars in the 1630s’, Historical Journal, 44, (2001), pp. 921–3CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists, p. 215.

40 Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 107r.

41 HMC, Fourth report, p. 146.

42 I. Atherton, Ambition and failure in Stuart England: the career of John, first Viscount Scudamore (Manchester, 1999), p. 223; W. Prynne The antipathie of lordly prelacie (London, 1641), ii, sig. ¶¶2r.

43 W. Prynne, A quench-coale ([Amsterdam], 1637), pp. 196–9.

44 E.g. HMC, Fourth report, p. 146.

45 HMC, Dean and chapter of Wells, ii, pp. 325, 395, 413; Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 60.

46 Prynne, Quench-coale, p. 161; Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists, pp. 215–16.

47 HMC, Fourth report, pp. 130–1, 138, 142; S. Eward, No fine but a glass of wine: cathedral life at Gloucester in Stuart times (Salisbury, 1985), p. 56; A. Foster, ‘The dean and chapter, 1570–1660’, in M. Hobbs, ed., Chichester Cathedral: an historical survey (Chichester, 1994), p. 92.

48 Nottinghamshire Archives, SC/01/78/15.

49 Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, pp. 235–6.

50 British Library (BL), Royal MS B xix, fo. 6r.

51 D. Marcombe, ‘Cathedrals and Protestantism: the search for a new identity, 1540–1660’, in D. Marcombe and C. S. Knighton, eds., Close encounters: English cathedrals and society since 1540 (Nottingham, 1991), pp. 53–5. For those of ‘more robustly Reformed convictions’ at Westminster see Merritt, ‘Cradle of Laudianism?’, pp. 642–4.

52 M. Tillbrook, ‘Arminianism and society in County Durham, 1617–1642’, in D. Marcombe, ed., The last principality: politics, religion and society in the bishopric of Durham, 1494–1660 (Nottingham, 1987), pp. 203–4; J. M. Horn, D. M. Smith, and P. Mussett, Fasti ecclesiae Anglicanae 1541–1857: volume 11 (London, 2004), pp. 86–113.

53 For Laudian conversion see Milton, ‘Creation’, pp. 176–7; at Norwich, both Dean John Hassall and Prebendary Fulke Robartes made public conversions from Jacobean puritanism to Caroline Laudianism: see their entries in Oxford dictionary of national biography (Oxford, 2004).

54 E.g. Lambeth Palace Library, MS 943, pp. 217ff.

55 R. Gillespie, ‘The crisis of reform, 1625–1660’, in K. Milne, ed., Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin: a history (Dublin, 2009), pp. 196–200; Trinity College, Dublin, MS 6404, fo. 116v; Representative Church Body Library, Dublin, C6/1/7/2, fo. 31; P. Marshall, Mother Leakey and the bishop (Oxford, 2007), pp. 64–8.

56 Representative Church Body Library, Dublin, C20/1/1, pp. 94–7, 114, 118, C6/1/26/3, no. 21; National Library of Ireland, MS 1618, part i, pp. 25–49.

57 For this paragraph see M. Reynolds, Godly reformers and their opponents in early modern Norwich, c. 1650–1643 (Woodbridge, 2005), pp. 28–9, 115–16, 128–52, 199–213. Readers should note that Reynolds sees the cathedral playing a far larger role in the fostering of Laudianism in the city. See also Atherton et al., eds., Norwich Cathedral, pp. 512–52.

58 Bodleian Library, MS Tanner 68, fos. 167–8, 219–20; MS Tanner 220, fos. 44–8, 116–27; Reynolds, Godly reformers, pp. 238–42.

59 W. Laud, Works, ed. W. Scott and J. Bliss (7 vols., Oxford, 1857–60), vi, p. 42; P. Heylyn, A briefe and moderate answer, to the seditious and scandalous challenges of Henry Burton (London, 1637), sig. d.

60 P. Heylyn, A coale from the altar (London, 1636), p. 27. An almost identical claim, but applied only to cathedrals, is in Heylyn, Briefe and moderate answer, p. 175.

61 D. Lepine, A brotherhood of canons serving God: English secular cathedrals in the later middle ages (Woodbridge, 1995), pp. 11–13. The justification was from Ezekiel 16:44, ‘As is the mother, so is her daughter’.

62 Norfolk Record Office (RO), DCN 29/1, fo. 38v.

63 Prynne, Canterburies doome, p. 88; Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists, p. 203; Heylyn, Coale, p. 27; R. T., De templis (London, 1638), pp. 192–4; G. Bray, ed., The Anglican canons, 1529–1947 (Church of England Record Society, 6, 1998), p. 570.

64 R. Shelford, Five piovs and learned discourses (Cambridge, 1635), p. 20; B. Ryves, Mercurius rusticus (Oxford, 1646), ‘The preface’, in his Angliae ruina ([London], 1647), between pp. 202 and 203; Northamptonshire RO, Finch-Hatton MS 104, preserving only the chapter headings and subheadings of W. W.'s work. Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored, p. 148 n. 58, suggest it may be by William Watts, prebendary of Wells; they date it to 1637x40. See also M. Godwyn, Articles to be inquired of in the arch-deaconrie of Salop (London, 1639), sig. b2r; and J. Pocklington, Altare Christianum (London, 1637), pp. 155, 159, 161.

65 C. Rogers, ed., The earl of Stirling's register of royal letters (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1885), i, pp. 73–4, 796–7, 800.

66 J. Williams, The holy table ([London], 1637), pp. 15–16, 182–3.

67 H. Burton, For God, and the king ([Amsterdam], 1636), pp. 158–61.

68 P. Smart, A short treatise of altars ([London], n.d.), sig. *. The book is without publication date but is usually assigned to 1643. The title page states that it was written in 1629, though the preface, from which this quotation is taken, is later, certainly after 1633 (for it refers to Laud as archbishop of Canterbury). The preface was probably written when Smart was released from gaol in 1640, and the book published soon after.

69 P. Smart, The vanitie & downe-fall of superstitious Popish ceremonies (Edinburgh, 1628), sig. [*4v].

70 P. Lake, ‘The Laudian style: order, uniformity and the pursuit of the beauty of holiness in the 1630s’, in Fincham, ed., Early Stuart church, pp. 165–81; Atherton, Ambition, pp. 58–61; Fincham and Tyacke, Altars restored.

71 BL, Add. MS 11044, fos. 247–9; G. Fleming, Magnificence exemplified: and the repaire of Saint Pauls exhorted unto (London, 1634), p. 40.

72 For cathedrals see Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, pp. 4, 11, 17–22, and Parry, Arts, pp. 46–58; for parish churches, see A. Foster, ‘Church policies of the 1630s’, in R. Cust and A. Hughes, eds., Conflict in early Stuart England (Harlow, 1989), pp. 201–3.

73 For that drive see Crankshaw, ‘Community, city and nation’, pp. 57–60, and G. Higgott, ‘The fabric to 1670’, in Keene et al., eds., St Paul's, pp. 171–82.

74 Hampshire RO, 21M65/A1/31, fos. 13v–14v; TNA, SP16/195/31, fos. 94–5.

75 ‘Upon his Majesties Repairing of Pauls’ (1635), in E. Waller, Poems, ed. G. T. Drury (London, 1893), p. 17.

76 Fleming, Magnificence exemplified, p. 48. For similar ideas see also H. Farley, The complaint of Pavles (London, 1616); TNA, SP16/257, fo. 186r; J. Clifford, The divine services and anthems (2nd edn, London, 1664), ‘The preface’.

77 Foster, ‘Dean and chapter’, pp. 87–90; Carlisle RO, D&C 1/7, fo. 38v. See also Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, p. 12.

78 D. H. Fleming, The Reformation in Scotland (London, 1910), pp. 364–8, 607–8; G. Martine, Reliquiæ Divi Andreæ (St Andrews, 1797), p. 178; Galloway, Cathedrals of Scotland, p. 162.

79 Rogers, ed., Stirling's register, i, pp. 73–4, ii, pp. 471, 769–70, 841–2; Galloway, Cathedrals of Scotland, pp. 37–8, 119.

80 R. Stalley, ‘The 1562 collapse of the nave and its aftermath’, in Milne, ed., Christ Church, pp. 218–34; W. Knowler, ed., The earl of Strafforde's letters and dispatches (2 vols., London, 1739), ii, pp. 101, 157, 169; Diamond, ‘Cathedral system’, pp. 120–1; Calendar of state papers, Ireland, 1625–1632, pp. 286–7.

81 Knowler, ed., Letters, ii, pp. 101, 120, 132, 138, 158. See Diamond, ‘Cathedral system’, pp. 112–19, for the state of Ireland's cathedrals.

82 T. W. Jones, ed., A true relation of the life and death of the right reverend father in God William Bedell (Camden Society, second series, 1872), p. 149; Trinity College, Dublin, MS 1188, fo. 17v; Galloway, Cathedrals of Scotland, especially pp. 3, 37–8, 47, 60, 85, 91, 119, 128, 162; McRoberts, D., ‘Material destruction caused by the Scottish Reformation’, Innes Review, 10, (1959), pp. 126–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

83 Collinson, ‘Protestant cathedral’, p. 156; A. W. Goodman and W. H. Hutton, eds., The statutes governing the cathedral church of Winchester given by King Charles I (Oxford, 1825), p. 1; BL, Add. MS 11051, fo. 198v.

84 Lambeth Palace Library, MS 2016, fo. 28r; Westminster Abbey Library, Muniment Book 15, fo. 93v; see also BL, Sloane MS 2596.

85 W. Somner, The antiquities of Canterbury (London, 1640), especially pp. 169–70, 174, 177–8, 181. For early guides to cathedral epitaphs see W. Camden, Reges, reginae, nobiles, & alij in ecclesia collegiata B. Petri Westmonasterij sepulti (London, 1600), and H. Holland, Monumenta sepulchraria Sancti Pauli (London, [1614]).

86 Tyacke, Anti-Calvinists, pp. 119–20; [R. Hegge], The legend of St. Cuthbert with the antiquities of the church of Durham (London, 1663).

87 J. Row, The history of the Kirk of Scotland, ed. D. Laing (Wodrow Society, Edinburgh, 1842), p. 369; Collinson, ‘Protestant cathedral’, p. 184; Galloway, Cathedrals of Scotland, p. 47. Cosin had been charged in 1630 with branding the Reformation ‘a Deformation’: G. Ornsby, ed., The correspondence of John Cosin (2 vols., Surtees Society, 52, 55, 1869–72), i, p. 164.

88 Ryves, Angliae ruina, p. 204; J. Weever, Ancient fvnerall monvments (London, 1631), p. 198; Somner, Canterbury, p. 164. For Erasmus's words in his Colloquy on pilgrimage (tanta majestate sese erigit in coelum ut procul etiam intuentibus religionem incutiat), see D. Erasmus, Colloquiorum (London, 1631), p. 300.

89 W. S. Simpson, ed., Documents illustrating the history of St Paul's Cathedral (Camden Society, second series, 26, 1880), p. 135.

90 Rogers, ed., Stirling's register, ii, p. 684.

91 I. Atherton, ‘The dean and chapter, Reformation to Restoration: 1541–1660’, in P. Meadows and N. Ramsay, eds., A history of Ely Cathedral (Woodbridge, 2003), p. 176.

92 Eward, ed., Gloucester Cathedral chapter act book, p. 77; Laud, Works, v, p. 324, vii, pp. 595–7; HMC, Fourth report, pp. 130, 144; HMC, Report on the manuscripts of Wells Cathedral (London, 1885), p. 256; Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 120r.

93 Simpson, ed., St Paul's Cathedral, pp. 131–3; HMC, Fourth Report, pp. 135, 138; S. R. Gardiner, ed., Reports of cases in the courts of star chamber and high commission (Camden Society, second series, 39, 1886), p. 280; Calendar of state papers, Ireland, 1633–1647, p. 31.

94 TNA, SP16/239/56, fo. 71; SP16/240/10, fo. 35; National Library of Scotland, Wodrow MS Quarto ix, fo. 407v; G. Cobb, English cathedrals: the forgotten centuries (London, 1980), p. 124; H. R. Trevor-Roper, Archbishop Laud, 1575–1645 (London, 1940), p. 123.

95 Merritt, ‘Cradle of Laudianism?’, p. 629 n. 24; Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 107r; Prynne, Quench-coale, p. 197.

96 Gloucestershire RO, D936/A1/2, p. 67; Prynne, Antipathie, p. 292, sig. ¶¶2v.

97 A. Erskine, V. Hope, and J. Lloyd, Exeter Cathedral: a short history and description (Exeter, 1988), pp. 57–8, 147; M. Swanton, ed., Exeter Cathedral: a celebration (Exeter, 1991), pp. 217, 219.

98 George Herbert reportedly claimed that his attendance at Salisbury Cathedral ‘was his Heaven upon Earth’. I. Walton, Lives (London, 1670), ‘The Life of Mr. George Herbert’, p. 60.

99 This paragraph is indebted to J. Saunders, ‘English cathedral choirs and choirmen, 1558 to the civil war: an occupational study’ (Ph.D. thesis, Cambridge, 1996), ch. 1.

100 J. Bridges, A defence of the gouernment established in the Church of Englande (London, 1587), p. 645; The praise of mvsicke (Oxford, 1586), p. 151.

101 T. Morley, A plaine and easie introduction to practicall musicke (London, 1597), p. 179; see also BL, Royal MS B xix.

102 A. Willet, Harmonie in the seconde booke of Samuel (Cambridge, 1614), pp. 32–3; idem, Thesaurus ecclesiae (Cambridge, 1604), p. 132. For the attack on music see P. A. Scholes, The puritans and music (London, 1934).

103 I. Payne, The provision and practice of sacred music at Cambridge colleges and selected cathedrals, c. 1547–c. 1646 (London and New York, NY, 1993), pp. 66–78; Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, p. 181; Parry, Arts, p. 169; S. Bond, ed., The chapter acts of the dean and canons of Windsor (Windsor, 1966), pp. 71–2, 77; W. D. Peckham, ed., The acts of the dean and chapter of the cathedral church of Chichester, 1545–1642 (Sussex Record Society, 1959), pp. 190–1, 207–9.

104 F. Robartes, Gods holy house and service (London, 1639), p. 55.

105 BL, Add. MS 4794, fo. 476; Add. MS 11273.

106 Representative Church Body Library, Dublin, C6/1/7/2, fos. 31r–33r; B. Boydell, ed., Music at Christ Church before 1800 (Dublin, 1999), pp. 71–4, 96–7.

107 Diamond, ‘Cathedral system’, pp. 58, 221.

108 Payne, Provision and practice, p. 80; Lehmberg, Cathedrals under siege, pp. 181–2; Bond, ed., Chapter acts of the dean and canons of Windsor, pp. 175–7, 179–80; Parry, Arts, p. 170; TNA, PROB11/173, fo. 213v; Reynolds, Godly reformers, p. 262.

109 C. Butler, The principles of musik (London, 1636), p. 112; Sanders, ‘English cathedral choirs’, pp. 48–9, 52–5; Ornsby, ed., Correspondence of Cosin, i, pp. 200–2.

110 Lambeth Palace Library, MS 2016, fos. 25–34; TNA, SP12/146, fo. 236; Westminster Abbey Library, Muniment Book 15, fo. 93.

111 J. Browning, Concerning pvblike prayer (London, 1636), p. 124; R. Tedder, A sermon preached at Wimondham in Norfolke (London, 1637), pp. 12–13; J. Swan, A sermon (London, 1639), pp. 11, 15.

112 Tedder, Sermon, pp. 13–15; Swan, Sermon, p. 14; Lake, ‘Laudian style’, pp. 168–9.

113 Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 102r.

114 Shelford, Discourses, p. 45, referring to Exodus 29:42, ‘This shall be a continual burnt offering … at the door of the tabernacle … where I will meet you, to speak there unto thee.’

115 BL, Add. MS 11044, fos. 247–9; H. Farley, St. Pavles-chvrch her bill for the parliament (1621), sigs. Br–B2v, B3; Fleming, Magnificence exemplified, pp. 38–9.

116 Bodleian Library, MS Rawlinson C 368, fo. 2r; MS Tanner 68, fos. 82r, 167r, 336v.

117 Tedder, Sermon, p. 16.

118 A copy of the king's order survives at most cathedrals, e.g. Lichfield RO, D30/2/1/5, fo. 10r, Carlisle RO, D&C 1/6, pp. 392–3; Eward, ed., Gloucester Cathedral chapter act book, pp. 70–1.

119 TNA, SP16/255/2, SP16/295, fo. 142.

120 HMC, Fourth Report, p. 146; Collinson, ‘Protestant cathedral’, pp. 189–90; Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 132r; Eward, ed., Gloucester Cathedral chapter act book, p. 78; Laud, Works, v, p. 456, vi, pp. 403–4, 601, vii, p. 257; K. Fincham, ed., Visitation articles and injunctions of the early Stuart church (2 vols., Church of England Record Society, 1, 5, 1994–7), ii, pp. 168–70; Nottinghamshire Archives, SC/01/78/4–5, SC/01/78/21.

121 Laud, Works, v, pp. 454–5, 482–4, 486, 488–9, 491, 494, vii, pp. 215–16, 497–8.

122 Representative Church Body Library, Dublin, C6/1/7/2, fo. 42v.

123 National Library of Wales, LL/Ch/495; Peckham, ed., Acts of the dean and chapter of the cathedral church of Chichester, p. 207; Norfolk RO, NCR 9i/10.

124 Foster, ‘Church policies’, pp. 204–5; Marsh, C., ‘Sacred space in England, 1560–1640: the view from the pew’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 53 (2002), p. 296CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 J. Crawford and R. Gillespie, eds., St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin: a history (Dublin, 2009), pp. 183–4, 222–3.

126 HMC, Dean and chapter of Wells, ii, p. 422; Notestein and Relf, eds., Commons debates, p. 144. Men and women were conventionally (but not universally) separated in church seating: Marsh, C., ‘Order and place in England, 1580–1640: the view from the pew’, Journal of British Studies, 44 (2005), p. 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

127 K. Edwards, The English secular cathedrals in the middle ages (2nd edn, Manchester, 1967), pp. 97–134; TNA, SP16/274/41, fos. 93–4; Laud, Works, v, pp. 319, 325.

128 W. Laud, The history of the troubles and tryal, ed. H. Wharton (London, 1695), pp. 68–9, 306; Saunders, J., ‘The limitations of statutes: Elizabethan schemes to reform new foundation cathedral statutes’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 48, (1997), pp. 445–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Westminster Abbey Library, Muniment Book 14, fo. 2; Collinson, ‘Protestant cathedral’, p. 188; Goodman and Hutton, eds., Statutes; S. Lehmberg and G. Aylmer, ‘Reformation to Restoration, 1535–1660’, in G. Aylmer and J. Tiller, eds., Hereford Cathedral: a history (London, 2000), pp. 99–100.

129 Worcester Cathedral Library, A75, fo. 120r; K. Sharpe, ‘The image of virtue: the court and household of Charles I, 1625–1642’, in D. Starkey et al., eds., The English court: from the wars of the Roses to the civil war (Harlow, 1987), pp. 226–60.

130 Patterson, C. F., ‘Corporations, cathedrals and the crown: local dispute and royal interest in early Stuart England’, History, 85, (2000), pp. 565–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Estabrook, C., ‘Ritual, space, and authority in seventeenth-century English cathedral cities’, Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 32, (2002), pp. 593–620CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

131 C. P. Lewis and A. T. Thacker, eds., A history of the county of Chester, v (1): The city of Chester: general writing and topography (The Victoria History of the Counties of England, Woodbridge, 2003), pp. 109–12; P. Clark, ‘“The Ramoth-Gilead of the good”: urban change and political radicalism at Gloucester, 1540–1640’, in P. Clark, et al., eds., The English commonwealth, 1547–1640 (Leicester, 1979), pp. 167–87; Reynolds, Godly reformers; C. Cross, ‘Conflict and confrontation: the York dean and chapter and the corporation in the 1630s’, in Marcombe and Knighton, eds., Close encounters, pp. 65–6.

132 Cross, ‘Conflict and confrontation’, pp. 66–8; Trinity College, Dublin, MS 6404, fo. 117v.

133 TNA, SP16/316/8, fos. 11–12; Patterson, ‘Corporations’, p. 565. Worcester corporation received similar orders: TNA, SP16/389, fo. 189r.

134 Heylyn, Briefe and moderate answer, p. 175.

135 T. Park, ed., Nugae antiquae (2 vols., London, 1804), ii, p. 192; P. E. McCullough, ‘Andrewes, Lancelot (1555–1626)’, Oxford dictionary of national biography; Tyacke, ‘Andrewes’. For Laudians and their opponents on auricular confession, see Milton, Catholic and reformed, pp. 69–70, 72–5, 472–3.

136 See my forthcoming essay, ‘Cathedrals and the British revolution’, in M. Braddick and D. Smith, eds., The experience of revolution in Stuart Britain and Ireland (forthcoming, Cambridge).