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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 14 July 2020
This article reconstructs and analyses, for the first time, the Royal Ballet's state-sponsored tour of apartheid South Africa from February to April 1960. It traces the public outcry surrounding the company's decision to exclude its only dancer of colour, as well as the tour's planning, execution, and continuation through the Sharpeville massacre, local reception, and aftermath. In this episode of the post-war period, politics and high culture operated in tandem to sustain Britain's imperial connections amid decolonization and the Cold War. The article proposes a reframing of the ‘Wind of Change’ moment, analyses the role of ballet in Britain's cultural Cold War, and underscores the British state's willingness to set aside human and moral concerns for political advantage. Above all, it argues that, rather than being peripheral to, or merely reflecting, the British state's agenda, ballet enacted its politics.
I would like to thank Lynn Garafola, Jennifer Homans, Susan Manning, Guy Ortolano, Laura Phillips, and the anonymous reviewers for their feedback on various versions of this article. I am especially grateful to Johaar Mosaval for generously sharing his experiences, and to Sharon Paulsen for putting us in touch. I would also like to thank Meryl Lauer for sharing her expertise, Gerda Martin for the Afrikaans translations, and the archivists at the Royal Opera House Collections. Research for this article, supported in part by a CLIR Mellon Dissertation Fellowship, will be included in my Ph.D. dissertation on ballet and the post-war British state.
1 By 1960, the Royal Ballet included over 100 dancers. From 1957 until 1970, the organization divided into two large groups: while one group performed in London at the Royal Opera House, the other toured the British provinces or performed abroad. The group referred to as the ‘Touring Section’, formerly known as the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet, formed the basis of the team that visited South Africa in 1960.
2 House of Commons Deb, 9 Dec. 1959, Hansard, vol. 615, cc. 516–20.
3 While his colleagues performed in South Africa in 1960, Mosaval danced with other Royal Ballet members at the Opera House (see n. 1).
4 The tour is mentioned in Woodcock, S., The Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet (London, 1991), pp. 131–2Google Scholar; and Lebrecht, N., Covent Garden: the untold story (Boston, MA, 2001), p. 231Google Scholar. Presenting it as a window onto post-1945 British and South African relations, this article builds on previous scholarship: Hyam, R. and Henshaw, P., The lion and the springbok: Britain and South Africa since the Boer War (Cambridge, 2007)Google Scholar; Schaffer, G., ‘The limits of the “liberal imagination”: Britain, broadcasting and apartheid South Africa, 1948–1994’, Past & Present, 240 (2018), pp. 235–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sapire, H. and Grundlingh, A., ‘Rebuffing royals? Afrikaners and the royal visit to South Africa in 1947’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 46 (2018), pp. 524–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Feather, D., ‘British policy towards military cooperation with the Republic of South Africa, 1961–1975’, International History Review, 41 (2019), pp. 729–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
5 J. Tooley to S. Thomas, 15 Dec. 1959, The National Archives (TNA), London, BW 1/308.
6 D. Hatfield, ‘Royal Ballet season has thrilled thousands’, Cape Times, 30 Apr. 1960, p. 9.
7 Butler, L. and Stockwell, S., eds., The Wind of Change: Harold Macmillan and British decolonisation (New York, NY, 2013)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
8 S. Dubow, ‘Macmillan, Verwoerd and the 1960 “Wind of Change” speech’, in ibid., p. 39.
9 Phillips, V., Martha Graham's Cold War: the dance of American diplomacy (Oxford, 2020)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gonçalves, S., Danser pendant la guerre froide: 1945–1968 (Rennes, 2018)Google Scholar; S. Prickett and S. Tsintziloni, ‘Dancing national ideologies: the Athens festival in the Cold War’, Congress on Research in Dance Conference Proceedings (2016), pp. 308–14; Croft, C., Dancers as diplomats: American choreography in cultural exchange (Oxford, 2015)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Ezrahi, C., Swans of the Kremlin: ballet and power in Soviet Russia (Pittsburgh, PA, 2012)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
10 Studies of Britain's cultural Cold War typically omit dance: Shaw, T., ‘Introduction: Britain and the cultural Cold War’, Contemporary British History, 19 (2005), pp. 109–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Vaughan, J., ‘“A certain idea of Britain”: British cultural diplomacy in the Middle East, 1945–1957’, Contemporary British History, 19 (2005), pp. 151–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davies, S., ‘The soft power of Anglia: British Cold War cultural diplomacy in the USSR’, Contemporary British History, 27 (2013), pp. 297–323CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Webb, A., London calling: Britain, the BBC world service and the Cold War (London, 2014)Google Scholar. Exceptions which consider dance in this context include: Gonçalves, Danser pendant la guerre froide; Prickett and Tsintziloni, ‘Dancing national ideologies’; and Nicholas, L., ‘Fellow travellers: dance and British Cold War politics in the early 1950s’, Dance Research, 19 (2001), pp. 83–105CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
11 Grobb-Fitzgibbon, B., Imperial endgame: Britain's dirty wars and the end of empire (London, 2011)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Branch, D., Defeating Mau Mau, creating Kenya: counterinsurgency, civil war, and decolonisation (Cambridge, 2010)Google Scholar.
12 TNA, BW 1/308, 23 Feb. 1959, R. T. Butlin to Controller.
13 Ibid.
14 Giliomee, H., The Afrikaners: a biography of a people (London, 2011)Google Scholar; Moodie, D., The rise of Afrikanerdom: power, apartheid and Afrikaner civil religion (London, 1980)Google Scholar; Cloete, E., ‘Afrikaner identity: culture, tradition, and gender’, Agenda, 13 (1992), pp. 42–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
15 On Maud: Redcliffe-Maud, J., Experiences of an optimist: the memoirs (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Robert Armstrong, ‘Maud, John Primate Redcliffe (1906–1982)’, ODNB.
16 TNA, BW 1/308, 6 July 1959, Butlin to director.
17 TNA, BW 1/308, 1 July 1959, memo by Thomas.
18 TNA, BW 1/308, 6 July 1959, Butlin to Thomas.
19 TNA, BW 1/308, Aug. 1959, memo from the office of the high commissioner, Pretoria.
20 ‘Historic Royal Ballet tour of South Africa’, The Stage, 10 Dec. 1959, p. 8; J. Mosaval, interview with author, 25 July 2018.
21 Board minutes, 21 July 1959, Royal Opera House Collections (ROHC), London.
22 Grut, M., The history of ballet in South Africa (Cape Town, 1981), p. 48Google Scholar. In 1954, the organization's junior company, then named the Sadler's Wells Theatre Ballet, toured South Africa with ACT's sponsorship. While Mosaval was not included on this visit, the South African dancer David Poole, whom Hilde Roos explains ‘was born in 1925 into a coloured family’ and later ‘had himself reclassified by South African authorities in England as a white person’, was. Poole left the Theatre Ballet in 1956 and later worked as a ballet choreographer, teacher, and director in Roos, Cape Town. H., The La Traviata affair: opera in the age of apartheid (Oakland, CA, 2018), pp. 90–1Google Scholar. Also: Glasstone, R., David Poole: a life blighted by apartheid (Kibworth, 2018)Google Scholar.
23 ‘Africans to see Royal Ballet?’, Observer, 25 Oct. 1959, p. 17. In this article, I follow South Africa scholars who use the term ‘black’ to refer collectively to people categorized as ‘African’, ‘coloured’, and ‘Indian’ by the apartheid state after the 1950 Population Registration Act. While this approach is common, it is not universal.
24 A. La Guma, ‘Up my alley’, New Age, 10 Dec. 1959, p. 5.
25 Gerard Samuel notes that Mosaval ‘would have been classified Muslim and Coloured’ by the South African government. Samuel, G., ‘(Dis)graceful dancing bodies in South Africa’, Choreographic Practices, 6 (2015), p. 124CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Also see A. La Guma, ‘Up my alley’, New Age, 11 June 1959, p. 6: ‘Local boy who has made good is Johaar Mosaval, the Coloured dancer back in South Africa from the Royal Ballet.’ For more on ‘coloured’ identity and this contested and unstable term: Adhikari, M., Not white enough, not black enough: racial identity in the South African coloured community (Athens, OH, 2005)Google Scholar; Erasmus, Z., Coloured by history, shaped by place: new perspectives on coloured identities in Cape Town (Cape Town, 2001)Google Scholar; Jung, C., Then I was black: South African political identities in transition (New Haven, CT, 2000)Google Scholar.
26 TNA, BW 1/308, 7 Dec. 1959, memo by P. A. Controller.
27 TNA, BW 1/308, 10 Dec. 1959, memo by assistant director general; TNA, BW 1/308, 14 Dec. 1959, ‘Background notes to P. Q. on Royal Ballet tour in South Africa’.
28 ‘“Britse Haatlikheid” yet’, The Spectator, 11 Dec. 1959, p. 4.
29 ROHC, 22 Dec. 1959, Board minutes.
30 ROHC, 17 Dec. 1959, Ballet Sub-Committee minutes.
31 In historically liberal Cape Town, there was limited racial integration at the University of Cape Town ballet school under the direction of Dulcie Howes in the mid-twentieth century. See Glasstone, R., Dulcie Howes: pioneer of ballet in South Africa (Cape Town, 1996)Google Scholar; Hagemann, R., ‘The politics of dance in South Africa’, Ballet International, 31 (1990), pp. 127–46Google Scholar. Still, Mosaval was made to stand at the back of the studio, ‘know[ing] my place’. J. Mosaval, interview with author, 25 July 2018.
32 J. Mosaval, interview with author, 25 July 2018. Mosaval became a soloist in 1956 and was promoted to principal in 1960.
33 See ‘Dancer you will know: Johaar Mosaval’, Dance & Dancers, Nov. 1953, p. 19; R. Buckle, ‘Ballet’, Observer, 26 Dec. 1954, p. 7; ‘Male dancers in the Royal Ballet’, Times, 14 Jan. 1958, p. 3.
34 Alexander, S., Dance of my life (Kinloss, 2007), p. 104Google Scholar.
35 House of Commons Deb, 9 Dec. 1959; House of Commons Deb, 17 Dec. 1959, Hansard, vol. 615, c. 219W.
36 ‘“Britse Haatlikheid” yet’, p. 4.
37 R. Buckle, ‘Return of the native’, Sunday Times, 13 Dec. 1959, p. 24.
38 ‘Storm in Brittanje Oor S. A. Danser: Diskriminasie Beweer teen Mosaval’, Die Burger, 10 Dec. 1959, p. 1.
39 Dawie, ‘Uit My Politieke Pen’, Die Burger, 12 Dec. 1959, p. 12. On the Eoan Group: Eoan History Project, EOAN: our story (Johannesburg, 2013); Roos, The La Traviata affair; Pistorius, J., ‘Coloured opera as subversive forgetting’, Social Dynamics, 43 (2017), pp. 230–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; An Inconsolable Memory, DVD, directed by A. Kaganof and S. Muller (Stellenbosch, 2014).
40 D. L. S., ‘London ballet critic is not correct’, Rand Daily Mail, 15 Jan. 1960, p. 6.
41 A. La Guma, ‘Up my alley’, New Age, 4 Feb. 1960, p. 6.
42 Skinner, R., The foundations of anti-apartheid: liberal humanitarians and transnational activists in Britain and the United States, c. 1919–1964 (London, 2010), p. 156CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
43 Hyam and Henshaw, The lion and the springbok, p. 146.
44 TNA, BW 61/18, 2 May 1960, ‘Council work in South Africa’. Also: TNA, BW 1/308, 11 Dec. 1959, director general to M. Edelman; TNA, BW 68/18, 5 Jan. 1960, executive meeting minutes.
45 House of Commons Deb, 17 Dec. 1959.
46 TNA, BW 1/308, 4 Apr. 1960, UKSLS Pretoria to CRO.
47 Alexander, Dance of my life, p. 100.
48 ‘Royal Ballet here – undaunted by altitude’, Rand Daily Mail, 1 Feb. 1960, p. 19.
49 Tooley, J., In house: Covent Garden, 50 years of opera and ballet (London, 1999), p. 182Google Scholar.
50 Giliomee, H., ‘The growth of Afrikaner identity’, in Beinart, W. and Dubow, S., eds., Segregation and apartheid in twentieth-century South Africa (London, 1995), p. 191Google Scholar.
51 ‘Address by Mr. Macmillan to both houses of the parliament of the Union of South Africa, Cape Town’, in Hyam, R. and Louis, W. R., eds., The conservative government and the end of empire, 1957–1964, part I (London, 2000), p. 168Google Scholar.
52 M. Kenwood, ‘Ballet in Johannesburg’, Ballet Today, Feb. 1960, p. 21.
53 ‘Johannesburg's mayoress “did tennis with Walder Pidgeon…”’, Rand Daily Mail, 18 Feb. 1960, p. 7.
54 ‘Cup to be presented’, Rand Daily Mail, 17 Feb. 1960, p. 6; ‘Jottings about the ballet’, The Star, 22 Feb. 1960, p. 14; ‘Dancers entertained in Maritzburg’, Natal Daily News, 23 Mar. 1960, p. 9.
55 Alexander, Dance of my life, p. 103.
56 D. Sowden, ‘The ballet: supreme perfection!’, Sunday Times, 28 Feb. 1960, p. 16; O. Walker, ‘Nerina's radiance as Aurora’, The Star, 29 Feb. 1960, p. 13; E. B. S., ‘Younger Royal Ballet members shine’, Natal Witness, 23 Mar. 1960, p. 7; D. Hatfield, ‘Two Odiles had ovations at the Alhambra’, Cape Times, 19 Apr. 1960, p. 4; W. E. G. L., ‘Joger Dansers en Danseress Sorg vir Hoogtepunte’, Die Burger, 25 Apr. 1960, p. 2; A. F. V., ‘Die Geheim van Sibley se Sukses’, Die Burger, 28 Apr., p. 2.
57 ‘Address by Mr. Macmillan’, pp. 168, 171, 173.
58 See Schay, E., Of exile and music: a twentieth-century life (Ashland, OH, 2014), pp. 157–61CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
59 Grut, The history of ballet in South Africa; Worrall, J., ed., Ballet in South Africa (Cape Town, 1949)Google Scholar.
60 ‘Address by Mr. Macmillan’, p. 174.
61 Bosman joined the Royal Ballet in 1959.
62 1950s reviews from Afrikaans-language papers Die Vaderland and Die Transvaler appear in G. Rosen, ‘Frank Staff and his role in South African ballet and musical theatre from 1955 to 1959’ (Ph.D. thesis, Department of Music, University of Cape Town, 1998).
63 A. F. V., ‘Svetlana Beriosova en Donald MacLeary’, Die Burger, 27 Apr. 1960, p. 2.
64 Hatfield, ‘Two Odiles had ovations at the Alhambra’, p. 4. This argument on reception draws inspiration from Clayton, M., ‘Touring history: Tortola Valencia between Europe and the Americas’, Dance Research Journal, 44 (2012), pp. 29–49CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
65 Hyam and Henshaw, The lion and the springbok, p. 279.
66 On notions of dance and ‘civilization’ prized by white South Africans: van Wyk, S., ‘Ballet blanc to ballet black: performing whiteness in post-apartheid South African dance’, in Friedman, S., ed., Post-apartheid dance (Newcastle upon Tyne, 2015), p. 39Google Scholar.
67 Parry, J., Different drummer: the life of Kenneth MacMillan (London, 2009), pp. 170–3Google Scholar.
68 A. B. S., ‘Miss E. Anderton scores big success in “Solitaire”’, Natal Daily News, 1 Apr. 1960, p. 14; D. O., ‘Evening of ballet was radiant – unforgettable’, Sunday Tribune, 27 Mar. 1960, p. 5.
69 ‘“The Rake” splendidly performed by Royal Ballet Company’, Natal Daily News, 28 Mar. 1960, p. 7.
70 Percival, J., Theatre in my blood: a biography of John Cranko (London, 1983), p. 129Google Scholar.
71 Hewison, R., In anger: British culture in the Cold War, 1945–1960 (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Marwick, A., Culture in Britain since 1945 (Oxford, 1991)Google Scholar.
72 Glasstone, Dulcie Howes, p. 88; D. Hatfield, ‘Cape Town University Ballet’, in Worrall, ed., Ballet in South Africa, p. 32.
73 Cloete, ‘Afrikaner identity’; Hyam and Henshaw, The lion and the springbok, p. 279; Dubow, S., Apartheid, 1948–1994 (Oxford, 2014), pp. 6–7Google Scholar.
74 Malherbe, V., ‘A jubilee in a turbulent year’, Natalia, 42 (2012), pp. 9–18, at p. 11Google Scholar.
75 ‘Royal Ballet hopes to come again’, Cape Times, 2 May 1960.
76 Hatfield, ‘Two Odiles had ovations at the Alhambra’, p. 4; L. Sowden, ‘A rich staging of Swan Lake’, Rand Daily Mail, 6 Feb. 1960, p. 3; D. L. S., ‘A brilliant season’, Rand Daily Mail, 8 Feb. 1960, p. 6; D. Hatfield, ‘Ballet brings magic to Cape Town’, Cape Times, 13 Apr. 1960, p. 4.
77 O. Walker, ‘At the ballet: royal swans have regal mistresses’, The Star, 8 Feb. 1960, p. 11; M. Kenwood, ‘The Royal Ballet in Johannesburg: second half of the season’, Ballet Today, June 1960, p. 23.
78 E. B. S., ‘Beryl Grey dances her way into city's heart’, Natal Witness, 22 Mar. 1960, p. 7; D. L. S., ‘The four Giselles’, Rand Daily Mail, 22 Feb. 1960, p. 6.
79 W. E. G. L., ‘Vertoon Suiwere Tegniek’, Die Burger, 14 Apr. 1960, p. 2; A. F. V., ‘Antoinette Sibley Is Inspirerend’, Die Burger, 19 Apr. 1960, p. 2; A. F. V., ‘Antoinette Sibley en Gary Burne Saam’, Die Burger, 22 Apr. 1960, p. 2; A. F. V., ‘Die Geheim van Sibley se Sukses’, p. 2.
80 Kenwood, ‘Ballet in Johannesburg’, p. 21.
81 D. L. S., ‘The four Giselles’, p. 6; O. Walker, ‘At the ballet: Cranko brings on the keystone kops’, The Star, 9 Feb. 1960, p. 9; W. E. G. L., ‘Jonger Dansers en Danseresse Sorg vir Hoogtepunte’, Die Burger, 25 Apr. 1960, p. 2.
82 D. O., ‘Nadia Nerina's absence was keenly regretted’, Sunday Tribune, 10 Apr. 1960, p. 8; R. Hains, ‘“Sleeping Beauty” cast a spell over audience’, Natal Daily News, 25 Mar. 1960, p. 14; Hatfield, ‘Royal Ballet season has thrilled thousands’, p. 2; Kenwood, ‘The Royal Ballet in Johannesburg: second half of the season’, p. 23; A. F. V., ‘Die Geheim van Sibley se Sukses’, p. 2.
83 Walker, ‘At the ballet: royal swans have regal mistresses’, p. 11; Hatfield, ‘Ballet brings magic to Cape Town’, p. 4; D. Hatfield, ‘Dancer has buoyant personality’, Cape Times, 21 Apr. 1960, p. 4; W. E. G. L., ‘Vertoon Suiwere Tegniek’, p. 2.
84 W. E. G. L., ‘Vertoon Suiwere Tegniek’, p. 2; ‘Triumph of ballet’, Sunday Times, 14 Feb. 1960, p. 14.
85 ‘Address by Mr. Macmillan’, pp. 169, 170, 172.
86 ‘Coloured audience thrilled by the Royal Ballet’, Cape Times, 26 Apr. 1960, p. 11.
87 ROHC, 21 Apr. 1960, Ballet Sub-Committee minutes, ‘ANNEX: The Royal Ballet, report from Durban – No. 2, from John Field’.
88 D. L. S., ‘Standing room – outside only’, Rand Daily Mail, 2 Mar. 1960, p. 9.
89 Alexander, Dance of my life, p. 105.
90 ‘Coloured audience thrilled by the Royal Ballet’, p. 11.
91 Ibid., p. 11.
92 TNA, BW 1/308, 26 Apr. 1960, CAPE TOWN to CRO.
93 Woodcock, The Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet, p. 132.
94 ‘Non-whites can see ballet’, The Star, 25 Feb. 1960, p. 1.
95 D. L. S., ‘Standing room – outside only’, p. 9.
96 ‘Non-white pickets at ballet opening’, Natal Daily News, 25 Mar. 1960, p. 14.
97 K. Hassim, interviewed by D. Shongwe, 24 June 2002, University of Durban-Westville Documentation Centre Oral History Project, ‘Voices of resistance’, www.sahistory.org.za/archive/kader-hassim-interview-2002-06-2 (accessed 22 June 2019).
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99 Hains, ‘“Sleeping Beauty” cast a spell over audience’, p. 14.
100 House of Commons Deb, 7 Apr. 1960, Hansard, vol. 621, cc. 561–2.
101 ROHC, 21 Apr. 1960, Ballet Sub-Committee minutes.
102 Alexander, Dance of my life, pp. 103–4.
103 ROHC, ‘ANNEX: the Royal Ballet, report from Durban – No. 2, from John Field’.
104 ‘Royal Ballet will open here as planned’, Cape Times, 7 Apr. 1960, p. 7.
105 TNA, UKSLS Pretoria to CRO.
106 TNA, BW 1/308, 4 Apr. 1960, CAPE TOWN to CRO.
107 R. Hains, ‘Beryl Grey shines in “Swan Lake” ballet’, Natal Daily News, 31 Mar. 1960, p. 14.
108 Kasrils, R., Armed and dangerous: my undercover struggle against apartheid (Oxford, 1993), p. 24Google Scholar.
109 ‘Royal Ballet hopes to come again’.
110 TNA, BW 1/308, 24 May 1960, Bridges to Drogheda; TNA, BW 107/26, report of the cultural adviser: Oct. 1956 – Apr. 1960.
111 TNA, BW 1/308, 29 Apr. 1960, Maud to Field.
112 TNA, BW 1/308, 24 May 1960, Maud to CRO.
113 Woodcock, The Sadler's Wells Royal Ballet, p. 132.
114 J. Mosaval, interview with author, 25 July 2018.
115 Alexander, Dance of my life, pp. 100, 104.
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118 Hyam and Henshaw, The lion and the springbok, p. 35.
119 ROHC, 17 Dec. 1963, Ballet Sub-Committee minutes.
120 ROHC, 7 Oct. 1964, Board minutes.
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123 The Council sent actress Rosalinde Fuller to South Africa in 1961, and theatre director Norman Marshall in 1965. It sponsored educational exchanges and sent exhibitions of British art as well as books and films there throughout the 1960s.
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126 M. Knipe, ‘Dame Margot argues with critics of apartheid’, Times, 20 Apr. 1972, p. 7.
127 J. Mosaval, interview with author, 25 July 2018; N. Daniels, ‘Learning from a legend’, Cape Times, 23 Feb. 2018, p. 3. Mosaval formed his own multi-racial ballet school in 1977.