¹ Alston, Patrick L., Education and the State in Tsarist Russia (Stanford, 1969), 20–25; Walker, Franklin A., “Popular Response to Public Education in the Reign of Tsar Alexander I, 1801–1825,” History of Education Quarterly 24 (Winter 1984): 527–43; McClelland, James C. in Autocrats and Academics: Education, Culture, and Society in Tsarist Russia (Chicago, 1979), 11, links the repressive policies in the latter half of Alexander's reign with later fears that “Western” ideas in the schools contributed to subversion.Google Scholar

² The Enlightenment in Western Europe itself was a complex phenomenon. The Enlightenment included the “secularization” aim, of which Collingwood spoke; the “remaking of man,” as Crocker pointed out; critical thought, the struggle for intellectual freedom, and humanitarianism which Gay described. Yet as Cassirer showed, the Enlightenment in its German version strove not for the dissolution of religion but for its “‘transcendental’ justification and foundation.” Collingwood, R. G., The Idea of History (New York, 1956), 76; Crocker, Lester G., Nature and Culture: Ethical Thought in the French Enlightenment (Baltimore, 1963), 492; Gay, Peter, The Enlightenment: An Interpretation, 2 vols. (New York, 1967–69); Cassirer, Ernst, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment , trans. Koelln, Fritz C. A. and Pettegrove, James P. (Princeton, N.J., 1951), 136. For an analysis of the complexities of Enlightenment thought, see Wade, Ira O., The Structure and Form of the French Enlightenment, 2 vols. (Princeton, N.J., 1977).Google Scholar

³ For a general discussion of intellectual currents in this period, see Billington, James H., The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretative History of Russian Culture (New York, 1968), 220–300. Also see Raeff, Marc, “The Enlightenment in Russia and Russian Thought in the Enlightenment,” in The Eighteenth Century in Russia , ed. Garrard, J. G. (Oxford, 1973), 25–47, and the two special issues which Griffiths, David M. edited of Canadian-American Slavic Studies 14 (Fall 1980) and 16 (Fall–Winter 1982) on “The Russian Enlightenment.” Google Scholar

⁴ Too much should not be made of the supposed “rationalism” of Catherine's reign. She confiscated church lands and corresponded with leading members of the Enlightenment, but her educational reforms were more in the spirit of state control over the church, as in the rule of the Emperor Joseph II of Austria (1780–90) (“Josephinism”) than of atheistic determinism. She depended in part upon ecclesiastical institutions to provide students, and religion was an important part of the curriculum. Most teachers were former seminarians. de Madariaga, Isabel, Russia in the Age of Catherine the Great (New Haven, Conn., 1981), 488–502; Okenfuss, Max J., “Education and Empire: School Reform in Enlightened Russia,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas 27 (1979): 41–61; Rozhdestvenskii, S. V. preface to Opisanie del arkhiva Ministerstva Narodnago Prosveshcheniia [A Description of the Materials in the Archives of the Ministry of Public Education], eds. Platonoy, S. F. and Nikolaev, A. S., 2 vols. (Petrograd, 1917–21), 1: xlii–xliii, and documents on 157–58.Google Scholar

⁵ For example, see Born, I. M. in Periodicheskoe izdanie Vol'nago Obshchestva liubitelei slovesnosti, nauk i khudozhestv [Periodical Publication of the Free Society of the Lovers of Literature, Science and the Arts] (1804), 136–38; Terlaich, G. I., Kratkoe rukovodstvo k sistematicheskomu poznaniiu grazhdanskago chastnago prava Rossii [A Short Guide to a Systematic Knowledge of Russian Private Civil Law] 2 parts (St. Petersburg, 1810), 1: 11, 18; Biaudet, Jean Charles and Nichol, Françoise, eds., Correspondance de Fredéric-César de La Harpe et Alexandre Ier, 3 vols. (Neuchâtel, 1978–80), 1: 72, 90, 316, 372, and (1979), 2: 230, 235.Google Scholar

⁶ Ancillon, Frederic, Tableau des révolutions du système politique de l'Europe depuis la fin du quinzième siècle, 4 vols. (Berlin, 1803–5), 1: intro., xxxix; law 20.407, 8 Sep. 1802, Polnoe Sobranie Zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii s 1649 goda [Complete Collection of Laws of the Russian Empire] (hereafter cited as PSZ) (St. Petersburg, 1830), 27: 240; Korifei [Coryphaeus] 1 (no. 2, 1802): 187; Stéphanie Genlis, Comtesse de, afterwards Marquise de Sillery (1746–1830), Adèle et Théodore ou lettres sur l'éducation, 2d ed., 3 vols. (Paris, 1782), 1: 233–37, 2: 74–81, 3: 90–91; Jakob, Ludwig Heinrich, Grundsätze der Policeygesetzgebung und der Policeyanstalten, 2 vols. (Kharkov, 1809), 1: 257–62.Google Scholar

⁷ Volkov, G. N., Egorov, S. F., Kopylov, A. N., eds., Antologiia pedagogicheskoi mysli Rossii XVIII v. [An Anthology of Pedagogical Thought in Russia in the Eighteenth Century] (Moscow, 1985), 150, 153; law 21.501, 5 Nov. 1804, PSZ, 28: 640; Sbornik postanovlenii po Ministerstvu Narodnago Prosveshcheniia [A Collection of Decrees of the Ministry of Public Education] (St. Petersburg, 1864), 1: 313.Google Scholar

⁸ Rechi, proiznesennyia v torzhestvennykh sobraniiakh Imperatorskago Moskovskago Universiteta russkimi professorami onago … [Addresses, Delivered at Solemn Assemblies of Imperial Moscow University by Its Russian Professors] (Moscow, 1821), 3: 68, 78–79 (henceforth cited as Rechi [Addresses]); Periodicheskoe sochinenie o uspekhakh narodnago prosveshcheniia [Periodical Writings on the Successes of Public Education] 13 (1805): 202–12 (hereafter Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings]; Litsei [The Lyceum] 2 (1806): 9; Ulei [The Bee-hive] 1 (Apr. 1811): 296.Google Scholar

⁹ Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] 13 (1805): 107–9; Kanarovskii-Sokhovich (initials not given) in Ulei [The Bee-hive] 3 (Mar. 1812): 188. Since the reign of Catherine II, speakers had identified Russian Christianity with Enlightenment concepts, while voicing horror of the medieval Catholic church. The theologian, philosopher, and historian Kh. A. Chebotarev in 1779 contrasted “pure and practical” Christianity with both “godlessness” and “superstition.” Rechi [Addresses] (1819), 1: 343, 347. The physicist P. I. Strakhov declared in 1788 that the kind of religious persecution associated with the Inquisition opposed “the laws of religion and humanity” and was contrary to Russian traditions of Enlightenment. Ibid. (1820), 2: 228–42.Google Scholar

¹⁰ Vasilii Sokolov of the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] 29 (1811): 652–58; Buhle, Jean-Gottlieb, Histoire de la philosophic moderne, 6 vols. (Paris, 1816), 6: 61; Severnyi vestnik [The Northern Messenger] 1 (1804): 1–12, esp. 2–3, 5, 6, 8, 10.Google Scholar

¹¹ Severnyi vestnik [The Northern Messenger] 1 (1804): 43–44, 3: 342–50, 4: 205, 5 (1805): 42; Cherniavskii, N. in ibid. 5 (1805): 35–38, 40.Google Scholar

¹² Sbornik postanovlenii [A Collection of Decrees], 1: 54, 141, 264, 268, 334–36; law 21.501, 5 Nov. 1804, PSZ, 28: 628; Medynskii, E. N., Istoriia russkoi pedagogiki do velikoi Oktiabr'skoi revoliutsii [The History of Russian Pedagogy until the Great October Revolution], 2d ed. (Moscow, 1938), 110; Sbornik materialov dlia istorii prosveshcheniia v Rossii [A Collection of Materials for the History of Education in Russia], ed. Kornilov, Ivan (St. Petersburg, 1893), 1: 330; Vestnik Evropy [The Messenger of Europe] 17 (Oct. 1804): 223–29; Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] 21 (1808): 451–63.Google Scholar

¹³ Sanktpeterburgskaia Vedomosti [The St. Petersburg News] 36 (30 May 1804): 1112, 76 (21 Sep. 1806): 857, and 84 (17 Oct. 1807): announcement; Severnaia pochta [The Northern Post] 89 (21 Sep. 1810), and 51 (26 June 1812); law 21.675, 21 Mar. 1805, PSZ, 28: 906; law 22.208, 13 July 1806, PSZ, 29: 462; Voronov, A., Istoriko-Statitichesksoe obozrenie uchebnykh zavedenii St. Peterburgskago uchebnago okruga s 1715 po 1818 vkliuchitel'no [An Historical-Statistical Review of Educational Institutions of the St. Petersburg Educational District from 1715 to 1828 Inclusive] (St. Petersburg, 1849), 215.Google Scholar

¹⁴ Sanktpeterburgskiia Vedomosti [The St. Petersburg News] 47 (10 June 1804): 1390–91, 86 (27 Oct. 1805): 985, 39 (8 May 1808): 552, 95 (26 Nov. 1807): 1198, 24 (23 Mar. 1809): 293, and 38 (11 May 1809): 483; Vestnik Evropy [The Messenger of Europe] 21 (Sep. 1814): 46–57; Sbornik materialov dlia istorii prosveshcheniia v Rossii [A Collection of Materials for the History of Education in Russia] (St. Petersburg, 1898): Litsei [The Lyceum] 3 (no. 2, 1806): 94; Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] 16 (1806): 429–30.Google Scholar

¹⁵ For Rizhskii, speech, Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] 16 (1806): 457–67, esp. 458, 463, 466; for biography, see Russkii biograficheskii slovar' [Russian Biographical Dictionary] (St. Petersburg, 1913), 16: 192–95; for Kudritskii, , Periodicheskoe sochinenie [Periodical Writings] (1806), 14: 178–87.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Gorodchaninov, G. N., Sochineniia v stikakh i proze [Writings in Verse and Prose] (Kazan, 1816), 52, 57–58.Google Scholar

¹⁷ The French reactionary writer Count de Maistre tried to influence Russian educational leaders to pursue a more religiously oriented program. Edwards, David W., “Count Joseph Marie de Maistre and Russian Educational Policy, 1803–1828,” Slavic Review 36 (Mar. 1977): 54–75. For a balanced summary of Alexander's reign, see McConnell, Allen, Tsar Alexander 1, Paternalistic Reformer (New York, 1970); on foreign policy, Grimsted, Patricia Kennedy, The Foreign Ministers of Alexander I: Political Attitudes and the Conduct of Russian Diplomacy, 1801–1825 (Berkeley, Calif., 1969).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁸ Rogger, Hans, National Consciousness in Eighteenth-Century Russia (Cambridge, Mass., 1960). See “Dobryi otets,” [“A Good Father”] Russkii vestnik [The Russian Messenger] 7 (Sep. 1809): 297–342, for one among many examples of chauvinistic-religious assertions. Also see Al'tshuller, Mark, Predtechi slavianofil'stva v russkoi literature (Obshchestvo “Beseda liubitelei russkogo slova”) [The Forerunners of Slavophilism in Russian Literature (The Society of the “Colloquy of the Lovers of Russian Speech”)] (Ann Arbor, 1984); Walker, Franklin A., “Patriotic Rhetoric, Public Education, and Language Choice in the Russia of Tsar Alexander I,” Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism 12 (Autumn 1985): 261–71.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Vestnik Evropy [The Messenger of Europe] 18 (Sep. 1814): 83–105; Evgenov, I., “Ob istinnom prosveshchenii” [“On True Enlightenment”], ibid. 105 (May 1819): 85–103, esp. 88–89, 101–3. Evgenov is not identified. Presumably he was a senior student who reflected the views of a teacher.Google Scholar

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