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Working-Class Women, Gender, and Union Politics in Turkey, 1965–1980

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  29 November 2021

Büşra Satı
Büşra Satı*
Affiliation:
PhD Candidate, Department of Sociology, SUNY at Binghamton or Binghamton University
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Abstract

This paper focuses on the ideology and discourses of Tekstil İṣçileri Sendikası (the Textile Workers’ Union, Tekstil) in Turkey to highlight some of the specific visions of the organized labor for an emancipatory gender politics during the 1970s. This history of intersection between gender and working-class organizing has been overlooked by the Left scholarship on the one hand and liberal feminist scholarship on the other. This paper addresses this gap in the literature by highlighting gender and class concurrently throughout the history of the transformation of gender politics in labor organizations. The history of the simultaneous development of gender-related policies in Tekstil/DİSK and TEKSİF/Türk-İṣ reveals an unexplored aspect of the contentious dynamic between rival labor organizations. Between 1975–1980, the politics of gender became another pillar in trade union competition. Following the transnational influences in this transformation, this paper highlights a forgotten period of labor organizing and locates it within the history of labor and women's movements at the national and global scale.

Type
Research Article
Information
International Labor and Working-Class History , Volume 100 , Fall 2021 , pp. 87 - 108
Copyright
Copyright © International Labor and Working-Class History, Inc., 2021

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Footnotes

Unless otherwise noted, all translations are my own.

I am grateful to Susan Zimmermann, Mahua Sarkar, Ana Maria Candela, and anonymous reviewers for their insightful and critical remarks on earlier drafts of this article.

References

NOTES

2. For a review article challenging this categorization see Sevgi Adak, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Kadın Hareketi: Yeni Bir Feminizmin Ayak Sesleri” in Türkiye'nin 1970’li Yılları, edited by Mete Kaan Kaynar (İstanbul, 2020), 609–629.

3. See, for example, Arat, Yeṣim, “Toward a Democratic Society: The Women's Movement in Turkey in the 1980s,” Women's Studies Int. Forum 17 (1994): 241–248CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cagla Diner, and Şule Toktaş, “Waves of Feminism in Turkey: Kemalist, Islamist and Kurdish Women's Movements in an era of Globalization,” Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies 12 (2010): 41–57; Sirman, Nükhet, “Feminism in Turkey: A short history,” New perspectives on Turkey 3 (1989): 1–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tekeli, Şirin, “Europe, European Feminism and, Women in Turkey,” Women's Studies International Forum 15 (1992): 139–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tekeli, Şirin, “Introduction: Women in Turkey in the 1980s,” in Women in Modern Turkish Society: A Reader, edited by Tekeli, Şirin (London, 1995), 1–22Google Scholar; Tekeli, Şirin, “Women's and Gender History in Turkey: Beginning, Early Influences, Pioneers, Institutionalization, and Its Present State,” Aspasia 6 (2012): 165–171Google Scholar.

4. See Berktay, Fatmagül, “Has Anything Changed in the Outlook of the Turkish Left on Women?” in Women in Modern Turkish Society: A Reader, edited by Tekeli, Şirin (London, 1995), 250–262Google Scholar; Kandiyoti, Deniz, “Women and the Turkish State: Political Actors or Symbolic Pawns?” in Woman- Nation- State, edited byf Nira Yuval-Davis and Anthias, Floya (London: 1989), 126–149CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tekeli, “Introduction: Women in Turkey”; Tekeli, “Women's and Gender History.”

5. The US feminist historiography also presumed that following women's suffrage in 1920, feminist movements disappeared until they re-emerged during the 1970s. This idea of a five-decades long retreat has been debunked as scholars expanded their definition of feminism to include the struggles of working-class women and women of color in labor and civil rights movements. See Cobble, Dorothy Sue, Gordon, Linda, and Henry, Astrid, Feminism unfinished: A short, surprising history of American women's movements (New York, 2014)Google Scholar; Cobble, Dorothy Sue, The Other Women's Movement: Workplace Justice and Social Rights in Modern America (Princeton, 2004)Google Scholar.

6. Adak, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Kadın” 610–612. Also see Emel Akal, Kızıl feministler: Bir sözlü tarih çalıṣması (Istanbul, 2008); Azak, Umut and de Smaele, Henk, “National and Transnational Dynamics of Women's Activism in Turkey in the 1950s and 1960s: The Story of the ICW Branch in Ankara,” Journal of Women's History 28 (2016): 41–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Çınar, Sercan, “The Making of Turkish Migrant Left Feminism and Political Generations in the Ruhr, West Germany (1975–90),” in Gender, Generations, and Communism in Central and Eastern Europe and Beyond, edited by Artwińska, Anna and Mrozik, Agnieszka (New York, 2020): 102–121CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Birsen Talay Keṣoğlu, “Socialist Women's Organizations in Turkey, 1975–1980,” (Unpublished PhD diss., Istanbul, 2007).

7. For example, see Ahmet Makal, “Türkiye'de Kadın Emeğinin Tarihsel Kökenleri: 1920- 1960,” in Geçmiṣten Günümüze Türkiye'de Kadın Emeği, edited by Ahmet Makal and Gülay Toksöz (Ankara, 2012), 38–115; Yıldız Ecevit, “Shop Floor Control: The Ideological Construction of Turkish Women factory Workers,” in Working Women: International Perspectives on Labour and Gender Ideology, edited by Nanneke Redclift and M. Thea Sinclair (London & New York, 1991), 55–77.

8. Şemsa Özar, “Türkiye'de 1980 Sonrası Dönemde Kadın Emeği ve Istihdamı Politikaları: Kadın Hareketi, Sendikalar, Devlet ve İṣveren Kuruluṣları,” in Geçmiṣten Günümüze Türkiye'de Kadın Emeği, edited by Ahmet Makal and Gülay Toksöz (Ankara, 2012), 266–304; Gülay Toksöz “Kadın Çalıṣanlar ve Sendikal Katılım,” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 49 (1994): 439–454; Gülay Toksöz and Seyhan Erdoğdu, Sendikacı Kadın Kimliği (Ankara, 1998); Yeğen, “Sendikalar ve Kadın Sorunu”: 1–40.

9. For the negative impacts of politicization of labor unions on women workers’ concerns see Yıldız Ecevit, “Shop Floor Control,” 71–72. Yeğen argues that it was during the 1990s that gender came to the fore of the unions’ agenda. Mesut Yeğen, “Sendikalar ve Kadin Sorunu: Kurumsal Gelenekler ve Cari Zihniyetler,” Sosyoloji Arastirmaları Dergisi 3 (2000): 1-–0.

10. Cangül Örnek and Çağdaṣ Üngör, “Introduction Turkey's Cold War: Global Influences, Local Manifestations,” in Turkey in the Cold War: Ideology and Culture, edited by Cangül Örnek and Çağdaṣ Üngör (New York, 2013), 9.

11. İlker Aytürk and Tanıl Bora, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Sağ-Sol Kutuplaṣmasında Siyasi Düṣünceler,” in Türkiye'nin 1970’li Yılları, edited by Mete Kaan Kaynar (İstanbul, 2020), 308.

12. Ahmet Samim [Murat Belge], “The Tragedy of the Turkish Left,” New Left Review 126 (1981): 73–74.

13. For an overview of social mobilization during this period, see Emin Alper, “Reconsidering social movements in Turkey: The case of the 1968–71 protest cycle,” New perspectives on Turkey 43 (2010): 63–96; Aytürk and Bora, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Sağ-Sol,” 307–328; Christopher Houston, Istanbul, City of the Fearless: Urban Activism, Coup D'Etat, and Memory in Turkey (Oakland, 2020); Samim [Belge], “The Tragedy of the Turkish Left,” 60–85; Eric J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History, 3rd ed. (London, 1997), 253–291.

14. For the political violence during this period, see Sabri Sayarı, “Political Violence and Terrorism in Turkey, 1976–80: A Retrospective Analysis,” Terrorism and Political Violence 22 (2010): 198–215; Jenny White, “Turkey in the 1970s: The Cultural Logic of Factionalism,” in Turkey in Turmoil: Social Change and Political Radicalization during the 1960s, edited by Berna Pekesen (2020), 305–323; Alp Yenen, “Legitimate Means of Dying: Contentious Politics of Martyrdom in the Turkish Civil War (1968–1982),” BEHEMOTH-A Journal on Civilisation 12 (2019): 14–34.

15. See Görkem Akgöz, “Petitioning as industrial bargaining in a Turkish state factory: The changing nature of petitioning in early republican Turkey,” in On the road to global labour history: A festschrift for Marcel van der Linden edited by Karl Heinz Roth (Leiden, 2017), 129–163; Yiğit Akın, “The Dynamics of Working-Class Politics in Early Republican Turkey: Language, Identity, and Experience,” International Review of Social History 54 (2009): 167–188; Hakan Koçak, “50’leri İṣçi Sınıfı Oluṣumunun Kritik Bir Uğrağı Olarak Yeniden Okumak,” Çalışma ve Toplum 3 (2008): 69–86; Can Nacar, “’Our Lives Were Not as Valuable as an Animal’: Workers in State-Run Industries in World-War-II Turkey,” International Review of Social History 54 (2009): 143–166.

16. Brian Mello, Evaluating Social Movement Impacts: Comparative Lessons from the Labor Movement in Turkey (New York, 2013), chapter 4.

17. Mello, Evaluating Social Movement Impacts, 81. Saraçhane Meeting in 1961, Kavel Strike in 1963, Zonguldak Strike in 1965 June 15–16 Events and 1977 May Day were some of the noteworthy working-class actions between 1960 and 1980. For a more detailed overview, see Feroz Ahmad, “The Development of Working-Class Consciousness in Turkey,” in Workers and Working Classes in the Middle East: Struggles, Histories, Historiographies, edited by Zachary Lockman (Albany, 1994),133–163; Aziz Çelik, Vesayetten Siyasete Turkiye'de Sendikacılık (1946–1967) (İstanbul, 2010).

18. Peride Kaleağası Blind, “A New Actor in Turkish Democratization: Labor Unions,” Turkish Studies 8 (2007): 292.

19. Günseli Berik and Cihan Bilginsoy. “The labor movement in Turkey: labor pains, maturity, metamorphosis,” in The Social History of Labor in the Middle East, edited by Ellis Jay Goldberg (Boulder, CO, 1996), 42; Ahmad, “The Development of Working-Class Consciousness,” 142.

20. Business unionism or “voluntarism” emerged at the end of the nineteenth century and has been a distinctive feature of American unionism. See Victoria C. Hattam, Labor Visions and State Power: The Origins of Business Unionism in the United States (Princeton, NJ, 2014); Barry Eidlin, “‘Upon this (foundering) Rock’: Minneapolis Teamsters and the Transformation of US Business Unionism, 1934–1941,” Labor History 50 (2009): 249–267.

21. See Berik and Bliginsoy, “The labor movement in Turkey,” 46–47; Kaleağası Blind, “A New Actor in Turkish Democratization”; Mello, Evaluating Social Movement Impacts, 87–88.

22. Igor Lipovsky, “The Legal Socialist Parties of Turkey, 1960–80,” Middle Eastern Studies 27 (1991): 95.

23. Mello, Evaluating Social Movement Impacts, 85.

24. Ibid., 90–92.

25. DİSK, DİSK Kuruluṣ Bildirisi, Ana Tüzüğü (Istanbul, 1967). https://www.tustav.org/yayinlar/kutuphane/emek-hareketi-kutuphanesi/disk-yayinlari-02-kurulus-belgeleri.pdf.

26. Mello, Evaluating Social Movement Impacts, 88.

27. Türkiye Sendikacılık Ansiklopedisi vol. 1 (Istanbul, 1998), 312.

28. Kaleağası Blind, “A New Actor in Turkish Democratization,” 295.

29. See, for example, Burhanettin Duran, and Engin Yıldırım, “Islamism, trade unionism and civil society: The case of Hak-İş labour confederation in Turkey,” Middle Eastern Studies 41 (2005): 227–247; Yıldırım Koç, “Milliyetçi İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu: MİSK,” Kebikeç 5 (1997): 207–219.

30. For a review of the ISI in Latin America, for example, see Werner Baer, “Import Substitution and Industrialization in Latin America: Experiences and Interpretations,” Latin American Research Review 7 (1972): 95–122.

31. Çağlar Keyder, State and Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (New York, 1987), 150–151.

32. İpek İlkkaracan, “Why so few Women in the Labor Market in Turkey?,” Feminist Economics 18 (2012): 6–7.

33. Ruth Pearson, “‘Nimble Fingers’ Revisited: Reflections on Women and Third World Industrialisation in the Late Twentieth Century,” In Feminist Visions of Development: Gender Analysis and Policy, eds. Cecile Jackson and Ruth Pearson (London and New York, 1998), 172.

34. Ibid., 173–174.

35. İlkkaracan, “Why so few women,” 9–10.

36. The 51 percent of women in the manufacturing industry were employed in textile, clothing, and leather industries by 1980. See Ecevit, “Shop Floor Control,” 58.

37. Cobble points out that “formal barriers [regarding membership policies] fell in the early twentieth century, but many unions remained skeptical or at best indifferent to the organization of women.” See Dorothy Sue Cobble, “Introduction: Remaking Unions for the New Majority,” in Women and Unions: Forging a Partnership, edited by Dorothy Sue Cobble (New York, 1993), 5.

38. Ruth Milkman, “Gender and Trade Unionism in Historical Perspective,” in Women, Politics and Change, edited by Louise A. Tilly and Patricia Gurin (New York, 1990), 93.

39. Addressed to rank-and-file textile workers and distributed for free, Tekstil was a monthly journal, published 110 issues between 1968 and 1979. Tekstil aimed to be an instrument to mobilize workers and to promote union policies.

40. For the origins and development of socialist construction of “bourgeois feminism” and “woman question” since the nineteenth century, see Marilyn J. Boxer, “Rethinking the socialist construction and international career of the concept ‘Bourgeois feminism’,” The American Historical Review 112 (2007): 131–158. The socialist organizations in Turkey developed a classical Marxist approach toward women with reference to the writings of Marx, Engels, and Lenin. Woman and Socialism by August Bebel and Woman and Communism edited by Jean Freville 1970s were also popular and contributed to politicization of gender issues in the Left. See Adak, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Kadın,” 613.

41. Tekeli, “Introduction: Women in Turkey,” 13.

42. Ceren Kenar and Doğan Gürpınar, “Cold War in the Pulpit: The Presidency of Religious Affairs and Sermons During the Time of Anarchy and Communist threat,” in Turkey in the Cold War: Ideology and Culture, edited by Cangül Örnek and Çağdaṣ Üngör (New York, 2013), 23.

43. White, “Turkey in the 1970s,” 308.

44. Sercan Çınar, “Between Dissidence and Hegemony: The Formation of Socialist Masculinities in Turkey in the 1970s,” (Unpublished master's thesis, Central European University, 2016), 47–52.

45. Ibid.

46. Berktay, “Has Anything Changed,” 251–252.

47. Milkman, “Gender and Trade Unionism”; Cobble, “Introduction: Remaking Unions.” Also see Alice Kessler-Harris, “Where Are the Organized Women Workers?” Feminist Studies 3 (1975): 92–110.

48. “Kadınlar! İkinci sınıf vatandaṣ anlayıṣına karṣı çıkın,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 94 (April 1976): 20–23.

49. Ibid., 22.

50. Ibid., 22.

51. Ibid., 22.

52. Erol Yalçın, “Sendikaların topluma karṣı görevleri,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 66 (November 1972): 18.

53. “Ayaz Barburi'ye ziyaret,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 70 (May 1973): 6.

54. “1 Mayıs hazırlıkları sürüyor,” DİSK 40 (April 1978): 28.

55. “Üçüncü dönem genel kurulumuz toplandı,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 24 (November 1969): 4; “Sendikadan Haberler,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 56 (November 1971): 8.

56. “Kendimiz seçtik kendi yöneticilerimizi,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 58 (January 1972): 6.

57. The union frequently used the term “Turkish” to describe the workers in Turkey. In other words, it did not recognize the potential ethnic differences within the working-class.

58. Equal Remuneration Convention, 1951 (no. 100).

59. “Kadın sorunu üzerine,” DİSK 17 (November 1975): 37–45. Tesktil joined the ICF in 1973.

60. Aziz Çelik, “Yetmiṣli Yıllarda Emek Hareketi: 15–16 Haziran'dan 12 Eylül'e Yükseliṣ ve Düṣüṣ” in Türkiye'nin 1970’li Yılları, edited by Mete Kaan Kaynar (İstanbul, 2020): 527–528.

61. “Kadın sorunu üzerine,” DİSK 17 (November 1975), 38.

62. Ibid., 38.

63. See Sarah Ashwin and Tatyana Lytkina, “Men in Crisis in Russia: The Role of Domestic Marginalization,” Gender & Society 18 (2004): 189–206.

64. Melanie Ilic, Women Workers in the Soviet Interwar Economy: From ‘Protection’ to ‘Equality’ (New York, 1999), 57–77.

65. Yulia Gradskova, “‘Supporting Genuine Development of the Child’: Public Childcare Centers versus Family in the Post-Soviet Russia,” in And They Lived Happily Ever After: Norms and Everyday Practices of Family and Parenthood in Russia and Central Europe, edited by Helene Carlbäck, Yulia Gradskova, and Zhanna Kravchenko, (Budapest, 2012), 168.

66. Kristen Ghodsee, “Rethinking State Socialist Mass Women's Organizations: The Committee of the Bulgarian Women's Movement and the United Nations Decade for Women, 1975–1985,” Journal of Women's History 24 (2012): 51.

67. Francisca de Haan, “Continuing Cold War Paradigms in Western Historiography of Transnational Women's Organisations: The Case of the Women's International Democratic Federation (WIDF),” Women's History Review 19 (2010): 548.

68. Ibid., 548.

69. Emel Akal, Kızıl feministler: Bir sözlü tarih çalıṣması (Istanbul, 2008), 106.

70. “İKD I. Olağan Genel Kurulu Çalıṣma Raporu (1976), in İlerici Kadınlar Derneği 1975–1980: “Kırmızı Çatkılı Kadınlar”ın Tarihi ed. Muazzez Pervan (Istanbul, 2013), 70–71.

71. In the Global North, similar demands were raised during the 1960s.

72. “İKD I. Olağan Genel Kurulu,” 71.

73. DİSK, Ana ve Emekçi Olarak İṣçi Kadının El Kitabı 18 (Istanbul, 1976), 5–8.

74. Akal, Kızıl feministler, 172.

75. It is interesting to note that by the time the İKD raised the campaign for childcare centers during the 1970s, Turkish Labor Code had already compeled employers to establish nursing rooms and childcare centers for almost four decades. For example, see “Gebe veya emzikli kadınların çalıştırılma koşullarıyla emzirme odaları ve çocuk bakım yurtlan (kreş) hakkında tüzük,” The Ministry of Labor, Resmi Gazete, August 11, 1973, 4–7. https://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/arsiv/14622.pdf However, these laws were not put into practice by employers.

76. “Kreṣ İmza Kampanyası Sonuçları,” in İlerici Kadınlar Derneği, 374–375.

77. “Kreṣ Kampanyası,” in İlerici Kadınlar Derneği, 369–370.

78. Akal, Kızıl feministler, 172–173.

79. Asian American Free Labor Institute was founded in 1968 by the AFL-CIO, with extensive funding from the US Agency for International Development. Initially the AFL-CIO's support for the Vietnam War and its organization in Southeast Asia set the conditions for the foundation of the AAFLI. See Edmund F Wehrle, “No More Pressing Task than Organization in Southeast Asia”: The AFL-CIO Approaches the Vietnam War, 1947–64,” Labor History 42 (2001): 277–295.

80. See Brigid O'Farrell and Joyce L. Kornbluh, “We Did Change Some Attitudes: Maida Springer-Kemp and the International Ladies’ Garment Workers Union,” Women's Studies Quarterly 23 (1995): 41–70; Yevette Richards, “Race, Gender, and Anticommunism in the International Labor Movement: The Pan-African Connections of Maida Springer,” Journal of Women's History 11 (1999): 35–59; Yevette Richards, Maida Springer: Pan-Africanist and International Labor Leader (Pittsburgh, 2000).

81. “Türk-İṣ National Woman's Bureau,” Remarks by Maida Springer (Istanbul, May 25, 1980), box 7, folder 3, Maida Springer Kemp papers, 1934–1998, Amistad Research Center.

82. “Women workers want solution to problems” [Translation], Hürriyet (daily newspaper) (April 16, 1980), box 7, folder 3, Maida Springer Kemp papers, 1934–1998, Amistad Research Center.

83. Yevette Richards, “Marred by Dissimulation: The AFL-CIO, the Women's Committee, and Transnational Labor Relations,” in American Labor's Global Ambassadors, edited by Robert Anthony Waters Jr. and Geert Van Goethem (New York, 2013), 51.

84. Terry Arendell, “Conceiving and Investigating Motherhood: The Decade's Scholarship,” Journal of Marriage and the Family 62 (2004): 1192–1207; Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden, “Introduction: Mothers, Motherhood, and Historians,” in Mothers and Motherhood: Readings in American History, edited by Rima D. Apple and Janet Golden (Columbus, 1997), x–xvii; Lucy B. Hall, Anna L. Weissman, and Laura J. Shepherd, Troubling Motherhood: Interrogations of Maternity in Global Politics (New York: 2020); Shirley A. Hill, “African American Mothers: Victimized, Vilified, Valorized,” in Feminist Mothering, edited by O'Reilly (Albany, 2008), 107–121; Claudia Malacrida, “Performing Motherhood in a Disablist World: Dilemmas of Motherhood, Femininity and Disability,” International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education 22 (2009): 99–117; Andrea O'Reilly, “Introduction,” in Feminist Mothering, edited by Andrea O'Reilly (Albany, 2008), 1–22.

85. Deniz Kandiyoti, “Identity and its Discontents: Women and the Nation,” Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 20 (1991): 429–443; Nira Yuval-Davis, “Gender and Nation,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 16 (1993): 621–632; Nira Yuval-Davis and Floya Anthias, Woman- Nation- State (London, 1989).

86. Jenny B. White, “State Feminism, Modernization, and the Turkish Republican Woman,” NWSA Journal 15 (2003): 146.

87. Ferhunde Özbay, “Changes in Women's Activities Both Inside and Outside the Home,” in Women in Modern Turkish Society: A Reader, edited by Şirin Tekeli (London, 1995): 102.

88. Ibid., 102.

89. Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation On A World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour, second edition (London and New York, 1998). Also, İlkkaracan, “Why so few women,” 8.

90. DİSK, Ana ve emekçi, 8.

91. Rıza Güven, “Kadın iṣçiler ve kreṣ sorunu,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 103 (March 1977): 3.

92. Keyder, State and Class, 159.

93. Hagen Koo, “From Farm to Factory: Proletarianization in Korea,” American Sociological Review 55 (1990), 671.

94. Burak Gürel, “Agrarian Change and Labor Supply in Turkey, 1950-1980,” Journal of Agrarian Change 11 (2011): 195–219; Immanuel Wallerstein, Historical Capitalism (London, 1983); Harold Wolpe, “Capitalism and Cheap Labour-power in South Africa: From Segregation to Apartheid,” Economy and Society 1 (1972): 425–456.

95. For example, see Bruno Arpino, Chiara Pronzato and Lara Tavares, “The Effect of Grandparental Support on Mothers' Labour Market Participation: An Instrumental Variable Approach,” European Journal of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie 30 (2014): 369–390.

96. Sibel Kalaycıoğlu and Helga Rittersberger-Tılıç, “Intergenerational solidarity networks of instrumental and cultural transfers within migrant families in Turkey,” Ageing and Society 20 (2000): 523–542.

97. “İṣçi kadınlar çocuklarına nasil bakiyor?” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 103 (February–March 1977): 7.

98. Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Aile, Çalısma ve Sosyal Hizmetler Bakanlığı, ”Yıllar itibarıyla günlük ve aylık asgari ücretler.” https://www.ailevecalisma.gov.tr/media/35831/yillar-itibariyla-gunluk-ve-aylik-asgari-ucret-01-07-1974-31-12-2020.pdf.

99. Though women's wages might be a little bit higher based on seniority or their skills.

100. “İṣçi kadınlar çocuklarına nasil bakiyor?,” Tekstil: Tekstil İşçileri Sendikası Aylık Yayın Organı 104 (April 1977): 17.

101. Ibid.

102. “İṣçi kadınlar” 103 (February–March 1977): 7.

103. Ibid.

104. In 2006 and 2007, woman workers in the Novamed factory went on a strike and women's groups and feminist organizations gave full support to the strike, which brought working-women's issues to the forefront of gender politics again after three decades. For a detailed analysis of the strike and its implications for gender politics in Turkey see Ayşen Üstübici, “Export-Processing Zones and Gendering the Resistance: “Women's Strike” in Antalya Free Zone in Turkey,” London School of Economics, Gender Institute, New Working Paper Series 24 (2009); Tore Fougner and Ayça Kurtoğlu, “Transnational Labour Solidarity and Social Movement Unionism: Insights from and beyond a Women Workers' Strike in Turkey,” British Journal of Industrial Relations 49 (2011): 353–375.