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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 18 December 2008
In the decade before World War I, revolutionary syndicalists and reformist socialists clashed repeatedly in the Italian labor movement. The reformist socialists, who maintained a hegemony throughout this period, advocated cooperation and compromises with the bourgeoisie and the government, supported by the Socialist Party in Parliament, to secure socio-economic benefits for the workers. The revolutionary syndicalists, who began to present an alternative to this strategy in 1905, favored direct action by workers through the unions to seize advantages from the bourgeoisie and reinforce the class consciousness of the proletariat. They asserted that the strike was the most effective means to win socio-economic reforms and bring about changes in politics. At the same time, they believed that it attracted converts and strengthened the union movement. The revolutionary syndicalists also argued that striking workers acquired initiative and combativeness, sentiments of unity and solidarity, and developed a heroic ethos of duty, dedication and sacrifice. The challenge of a strike, on the other hand, restored energy to the bourgeoisie: it transformed the property owners into aggressive, worthy opponents of the proletariat. As illusions of collaboration disappeared in the heat of battle, the revolutionary syndicaUsts predicted that the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie would become more intense and intransigent.
page 186 note 1 Leone, Enrico, Il sindacalismo (Milan, 1907), pp. 8–9Google Scholar; Labriola, Arturo, “Gli eccidi proletari e la decomposizione del PSI”, in: Pagine Libere, II (1908), p. 448.Google Scholar
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page 186 note 4 Sorel, Georges to Orano, Paolo, 08 16, 1908, in: Paolo Orano, Il fascismo, I, Vigilia sindacalista dello stato corporativo (Rome, 1939), p. 86.Google Scholar
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page 187 note 3 As part of my research for a book on Italian revolutionary syndicalism, I have been investigating its provincial organizations in Emilia-Romagna, Lombardy, Liguria, Piedmont, and Tuscany. On the province of Ferrara, see Roveri, Alessandro, Dal sindacalismo rivoluzionario al fascismo: Capitalismo agrario e socialismo nel ferrarese (1870–1920) (Florence, 1972).Google Scholar For the province of Parma, see Riguzzi, Biagio, Sindacalismo e riformismo nel parmense (Bari, 1931)Google Scholar; Spaggiari, Pier Luigi, “Il sindacalismo rivoluzionario a Parma: Lo sciopero delle bustaie del 1907”, in: Aurea Parma, LIII (1969), pp. 3–49Google Scholar; Basevi, Paolo, “Lo sciopero agrario a Parma nel 1908”, in: Emilia, III (1951), pp. 144–47Google Scholar; and De Micheli, Mario, Barricate a Parma (Rome, 1960).Google Scholar For the province of Modena, emphasizing the activities of one of the revolutionary-syndicalist labor organizers, see Riosa, Alceo, “Ottavio Dinale e le lotte agrarie nel modenese (1901-–1906)”, in: Nuova Rivista Storica, LII (1969), pp. 677–705.Google Scholar The article by Bolchini, Pietro, “Milano 1915: Il socialismo e la guerra”, in: Movimento Operaio e Socialista, XVI (1970), pp. 261–91Google Scholar, contains some information on the Unione Sindacale Milanese, headed by Filippo Corridoni, in 1913–15. Gaetano Perillo mentions the revolutionary-syndicalist movement in Liguria in “Socialismo e classe operaia nel genovesato dallo sciopero del 1900 alla scissione sindacalista”, in: Il Movimento Operaio e Socialista in Liguria, VI (1960), pp. 155–79Google Scholar, and VII (1961), pp. 37–56. For the revolutionary syndicalists' activities in the Turin metallurgical workers' strike of 1912, see Spriano, Paolo, Socialismo e classe operaia a Torino dal 1892 al 1913 (Turin, 1958), pp. 273–81.Google Scholar On the revolutionary-syndicalist movement in Piombino and on the Island of Elba, see Francovich, Giovanni, “Lo sciopero generale del 1911 alle acciaierie di Piombino”, in: Rivista Storica del Socialismo, IX (1966), pp. 126–48Google Scholar; and Favilli, Paolo, Capitalismo e classe operaia a Piombino: 1861–1918 (Rome, 1974), pp. 164–226.Google Scholar
page 188 note 1 Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, Direzione Generale di Statistica, Censimento della popolazione del Regno d'Italia al 10 febbraio, 1901, III (Rome, 1904), pp. 430–83Google Scholar; Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, Direzione Generale della Statistica e del Lavoro, Ufficio del Censimento, Censimento della popolazione del Regno d'ltalia al 10 giugno, 1911, IV (Rome, 1915), pp. 552–53.Google Scholar The statistics for 1901 included everyone nine years of age and above. The statistics for 1911 included everyone ten years of age and above.
page 188 note 2 Camera di Commercio ed Arti di Parma, Relazione sull'andamento delle industrie e del commercio del distretto durante il 1908 (Parma, 1909), pp. 7–11, 21–24.Google Scholar
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page 189 note 2 Censimento 1901, op. cit., III, pp. 430–31; Censimento 1911, op. cit., IV, p. 524.
page 189 note 3 Sereni, Emilio, Il capitalismo nella campagna: 1860–1900 (Turin, 1968), pp. 340–43Google Scholar; Serpieri, Arrigo, Studi sui contratti agrari (Bologna, 1920), pp. 140–41Google Scholar; Medici, Giuseppe and Orlando, Giuseppe, Agricoltura e disoccupazione: I braccianti della bassa pianura padana (Bologna, 1952), pp. 74–76.Google Scholar
page 189 note 4 In 1906–07, the wage of a day laborer, depending on sex, age and place of work, was 8–20 centesimi per hour; the price of bread was circa 50 centesimi per kilo. Basevi, “Lo sciopero agrario”, loc. cit., p. 144.
page 190 note 1 La Protesta (Parma), October 18, 1913. See also L'Avanguardia (Parma), March 4, 1909; and Archivo Centrale dello Stato, Rome, Ministero dell'Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Casellario Politico Centrale, “Alceste De Ambris”,
page 191 note 1 L'Idea, April 7, 1907.
page 191 note 2 Ibid., May 18, 1907.
page 191 note 3 Bollettino dell'Associazione Agraria Parmense (AAP), September 10, 1907.
page 191 note 4 Atti del Parlamento Italiano, Camera dei Deputati, Sessione 1904–07, Discussioni, Tornata del 3 giugno, 1907, XII (Rome, 1907), pp. 15162–63.Google Scholar
page 191 note 5 Avanti!, May 22, 1907.
page 191 note 6 Fontana, Francesco, Lo sciopero agrario nel parmense: Cause, vicende, rimedi (Parma, 1908), p. 13.Google Scholar
page 193 note 1 L'Idea, July 20, 1907.
page 193 note 2 Bollettino AAP, April 18, 1908.
page 193 note 3 Basevi, , “Lo sciopero agrario”, p. 144.Google Scholar
page 193 note 4 BoUettino AAP, August 24, 1907.
page 193 note 5 Ibid., September 10, 1907.
page 193 note 6 Ministero di Agricoltura, Industria e Commercio, Supplemento al Bollttino dell'Ufficio del Lavoro, No 20, Statistica delle organizzazioni di lavoratori al 1 gennaio, 1913 (Rome, 1914), p. 104Google Scholar; L'Idea, November 16, 1907.
page 194 note 1 L'Idea, October 26, 1907.
page 194 note 2 Ibid.
page 194 note 3 Masotti, Tullio, La pratica sindacalista: Commento critico all'azione svolta dalla camera del lavoro di Parma (Parma, 1910), pp. 17–18.Google Scholar See also La Scintilla (Ferrara), December 22, 1912.
page 194 note 1 L'Idea, November 30, 1907.
page 194 note 2 Ibid., April 25, 1908.
page 194 note 3 Ibid., February 29, 1908.
page 194 note 4 De Micheli, , Barricate a Parma, p. 38.Google Scholar
page 194 note 5 The landowners maintained that salaried workers without care of livestock had an obligation to work the same thirteen-hour day as salaried workers with livestock, since they received the same pay; the chamber of labor argued that the former should work a ten-hour day like the day laborers. The landowners claimed that they had the right to subtract 60 lire of house rent from the 600 lire annual salary of every salaried worker in a family; the chamber of labor wished the rent to be 60 lire per family, irrespective of the number of salaried workers in it. The landowners insisted that female salaried workers, whose pay and hours were fixed in the contract, had an obligation to work when the proprietor requested their services; the chamber of labor rebutted that the women had the right to refuse. Bagatti, O., “La lotta economica nel parmense”, in: Rivista Popolare di Politica, Lettere e Scienze Sociali, XIV (1908), pp. 234–35.Google Scholar
page 194 note 6 Bollettino AAP, April 8, 190S.
page 195 note 1 La Scintilla, April 11, 1908.
page 195 note 2 Bollettino AAP, January 11, 1908.
page 195 note 3 Ibid., January 2, 1908. See also Bollettino Federate Agrario, August 1–15, 1908.
page 195 note 4 Bollettino AAP, February 19, 1908.
page 195 note 5 L'Idea, February 22, 1908.
page 195 note 6 Bollettino AAP, March 7, 1908.
page 196 note 1 Ibid., April 2, 1908.
page 196 note 2 L'Internazionale, March 7 and 28, 1908.
page 196 note 3 Ibid., March 28, 1908.
page 196 note 4 Bollettino AAP, April 18, 1908.
page 197 note 1 L'Internazionale, Supplemento No 1, May 3, 1908.
page 198 note 1 L'Idea, April 25, 1908.
page 198 note 2 L'Idea, June 13, 1908; Basevi, , “Lo sciopero agrario”, p. 145.Google Scholar
page 198 note 3 Corriere della Sera, May 3, 1908.
page 198 note 4 Il Giornale d'Italia, May 7, 1908.
page 198 note 5 La Confederazione del Lavoro, May 9 and 16, 1908.
page 198 note 6 For the pessimistic opinion of the president of the Parmesan Chamber of Commerce, see Bollettino della Camera di Commercio ed Arti di Parma, XL (05, 1908).Google Scholar For the unions' rejection of the suggestion, see L'Internazionale, May 14, 1908.
page 199 note 1 Bollettino AAP, May 5, 1908.
page 199 note 2 Corriere della Sera, May 5, 1908.
page 199 note 3 Ibid.
page 199 note 4 L'Idea, May 16, 1908; Zerboglio, Adolfo, “Lo sciopero di Parma”, in: Rassegna Contemporanea, I (1908), pp. 598–601Google Scholar; Davanzati, Roberto Forges, “Cronaca delle agitazioni popolari: Pedagogia vecchia e nuova del conflitto di Parma”, in: Rassegna Contemporanea, I (1908), p. 647.Google Scholar
page 199 note 5 Corriere della Sera, May 8, 1908. For the pessimistic predictions of another reformist socialist, see Fausto Pagliari to Rinaldo Rigola, May 6 and 13, 1908, Fondo Rigola (1908), Istituto Giangiacomo Feltrinelli, Milan.
page 200 note 1 f.p., “La quindicina: La grande lotta nel parmense”, in: Il Divenire Sociale, IV (1908), p. 167.Google Scholar
page 200 note 2 Paolo Orano, “I risultati di un grande sciopero”, loc. cit.; L'Internazionale, May 30, 1908.
page 200 note 3 Mantica, Paolo, “Mentre a Parma si sciopera”, in: La Cultura Socialista, I, pp. 153–55.Google Scholar
page 200 note 4 Il Nuovo Giornale (Florence), May 10, 1908.
page 201 note 1 Orano, “I risultati”, loc. cit., p. 140. See also L'Azione Diretta (Florence), May 23, 1908.
page 201 note 2 Olivetti, A. O., “Anima nuova: A proposito dello sciopero di Parma”, in: Pagine Libere, II, pp. 512–13.Google Scholar This article was dated May 17, 1908.
page 201 note 3 Ibid., pp. 505–07.
page 201 note 4 La Propaganda (Naples), April 20, 1902. See also Marucco, Dora, Arturo Labriola e il sindacalismo rivoluzionario in Italia (Turin, 1970), pp. 155–56, 188–90.Google Scholar
page 201 note 5 L'Internazionale, May 23, 1908.
page 201 note 6 Ibid., June 13, 1908.
page 202 note 1 Corriere della Sera, May 24, 1908.
page 202 note 2 Ibid., May 20, 1908; Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell'Interno, Direzione Generate di Pubblica Sicurezza, Fondo Gabinetto, Ufficio Cifra e Telegrammi, VIII, No 11815, May 28, 1908 (Milan), pp. 147–48.
page 202 note 3 Corriere della Sera, May 24, 1908.
page 202 note 4 L'Internazionale, Supplemento No 22, May 25, 1908.
page 202 note 5 Riguzzi, , Sindacalismo e riformismo, p. 126.Google Scholar
page 202 note 6 L'Internazionale, Supplemento No 26, May 29, 1908.
page 202 note 7 Corriere della Sera, May 28, 1908.
page 202 note 8 L'Internazionale, Supplemento No 32, June 4, 1908.
page 203 note 1 Corriere della Sera, June 7, 1908.
page 203 note 2 Ibid., June 9, 1908.
page 203 note 3 Il Nuovo Giornale, June 11, 1908.
page 203 note 4 Bollettino AAP, June 13, 1908.
page 203 note 5 Ibid.
page 203 note 6 Il Nuovo Giornale, June 12, 1908.
page 204 note 1 Ibid., June 20, 1908.
page 204 note 2 Alceste De Ambris, who had been out of town at the time, stated afterward that the leaflet had violated his instructions to avoid a confrontation. L'lnternazionale, April 19, 1913. Ex post facto evidence of this nature, however, is inconclusive.
page 204 note 3 L'Internazionale, Supplemento, No 42, June 20, 1908.
page 204 note 4 Ibid.
page 205 note 1 Ibid.
page 205 note 2 Ibid.
page 205 note 3 Il Nuovo Giornale, June 21, 1908.
page 205 note 4 Although the magistracy instituted proceedings against 160 persons, only 7 were brought to trial. The charges were criminal association to commit offenses against persons and property, with Alceste De Ambris as head of the association (Penal Code, Art. 248); commission of acts to bring about an armed uprising against the powers of the state, with Alceste De Ambris as the leader (Art. 120); and moral complicity in 12 cases of unsuccessful homicide (Art. 364, 365 (2), 62, 63). In a decision on May 10, 1909, the Court of Assize in Lucca found the defendents not guilty on these charges. It condemned Alceste De Ambris to a one-year prison term, with a six-month reduction, on the charge of injuring a policeman with intent (“lesione aggravata”, Art. 372 (1) and 373). It sentenced Giovanni Pizzarotti, managing editor of L'Internazionale, to nine months in prison and a 300 lire fine on charges of justification of a crime, instigation to disobey the law, and instigation of hatred among social classes in a manner to endanger public peace (Art. 247). In this case, it granted an amnesty that freed him at once. Archivo Centrale dello Stato, Ministero di Grazia e Giustizia, Direzione Generale di Affari Penali, 1909, Busta 120, Fascicolo 160, “Corte d'Assise di Lucca: Sentenza Penale: Processo per i fatti di Parma, 10 maggio, 1909”.
page 206 note 1 Atti del Parlamento Italiano, Camera dei Deputati, Sessione 1904–08, Discussioni, I Tornata del 20 giugno, 1908, XIX (Rome, 1908), p. 23141.Google Scholar The authorities, in fact, did not welcome the assistance of the “volunteer workers”. See Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell'Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Fondo Gabinetto, Ufficio Cifra e Telegrammi, VIII, No 12222, 06 2, 1908 (Parma), p. 276.Google Scholar
page 206 note 2 Il Nuovo Giornale, June 22, 23 and 24, 1908.
page 206 note 3 Avanti!, June 27, 1908.
page 206 note 4 Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell'Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurezza, Fondo Gabinetto, Ufficio Cifra e Telegrammi, X, No 14486, 06 25, 1908 (Genoa), p. 13Google Scholar; No 14489, June 25, 1908 (Leghorn), p. 14; No 14543, June 25, 1908 (Ancona), p. 31.
page 206 note 5 La Confederazione del Lavoro, June 27, 1908; Il Nuovo Giornale, June 24,1908.
page 206 note 6 Avanti!, June 26, 1908.
page 207 note 1 La Guerra Sociale, June 27, 1908.
page 207 note 2 Il Grido degli Oppressi (Terni), December 17, 1910.
page 207 note 3 L'Internazionale, June 28, 1908.
page 207 note 4 Ibid., Supplemento No 56, July 12, 1908.
page 207 note 5 Ibid., Supplemento No 63, July 20, 1908.
page 207 note 6 Archivio Centrale dello Stato, Ministero dell'Interno, Direzione Generale di Pubblica Sicurrezza, Fondo Gabinetto, Ufficio Cifra e Telegrammi, X, No 15461, 07 4, 1908 (Parma), p. 316Google Scholar; No 15949, July 10, 1908 (Parma), p. 467.
page 207 note 7 Bollettino AAP, August 8, 1908.
page 208 note 1 L'Idea, August 1, 1908.
page 209 note 1 L'Internazionale, November 20, 1909.
page 209 note 2 Ibid., Supplemento No 64, July 21, 1908.
page 209 note 3 Statistica delle organizzazioni di lavoratori al 1 gennaio, 1913, p. 104.Google Scholar
page 210 note 1 Leone, Enrico, “L'atto di accusa contro lo sciopero di Parma: Glossa lineare ad un articolo di L. Bissolati”, in: Il Divenire Sociale, IV, p. 284.Google Scholar
page 210 note 2 Georges Sorel to Paolo Orano, August 16, 1908, loc. cit.
page 210 note 3 La Guerra Sociale, October 1, 1910.
page 210 note 4 Lanzillo, Agostino, Le mouvement ouvrier en Italie (Paris, n.d.), p. 40.Google Scholar See also Sorel to Orano, loc. cit.
page 210 note 5 L'Internazionale, November 24, 1908.
page 210 note 6 Ibid., December 24, 1908.
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