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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 08 October 2021
The destruction of cultural heritage in armed conflicts has gained increasing political momentum and visibility over the last two decades. Syria, Iraq and Mali, among others, have witnessed the intentional destruction of their cultural heritage by non-State armed groups (NSAGs) that have invoked Islamic law and principles to legitimize their actions. The response of the international community has predominantly focused on the material aspect, to the detriment of the significant impact on the associated intangible manifestation of cultural heritage in local communities. This article argues that several Islamic legal rules and principles may, more adequately than international humanitarian law, safeguard the intangible dimension of cultural heritage in certain contemporary armed conflicts in Muslim contexts. It aims to demonstrate the importance of drawing from multiple legal traditions in order to enhance the protection of intangible cultural heritage in armed conflicts and to strengthen engagement with the relevant NSAGs.
The author would like to thank Dr Ahmed Al-Dawoody for delivering the inspiring course “Introduction to the Islamic Law of Armed Conflict” and for his encouragement to produce this article.
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4 This paper acknowledges that there are numerous abuses in armed conflicts; the aim is not to compare the destruction of cultural heritage with the loss of human lives caused by armed conflicts. The author also notes that these were not the only cultural and religious buildings that have been targeted, and that the NSAGs mentioned throughout this paper are not the only perpetrators of such destruction. These NSAGs have been selected for their justifications of destruction grounded on Islamic principles. However, it cannot be stressed enough that violent extremism is not a phenomenon peculiar to Islam. The mentioned NSAGs’ actions and attitudes towards cultural heritage do not account for all NSAGs’ attitudes; for a different understanding of intangible cultural heritage by certain NSAGs, see M. Lostal, K. Hausler and P. Bongard, above note 2.
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17 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1037 UNTS 151, 16 November 1972 (entered into force 17 December 1975), Art. 11(2).
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27 1954 Hague Convention, Art. 2.
28 Ibid., Art. 19(1).
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30 Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, 2253 UNTS 172, 26 March 1999 (1999 Second Protocol), Art. 22(1).
31 Ibid., Art. 5.
32 Ibid., Art. 6. This article restates Protocol Additional (I) to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, 1125 UNTS 3, 8 June 1977 (entered into force 7 December 1978) (AP I), Art. 52(2).
33 1999 Second Protocol, Arts 1(f), Art. 6(a).
34 1954 Hague Convention, Art. 1.
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36 Ibid., Art. 16.
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40 AP II, Art. 16.
41 1954 Hague Convention, Art. 1; 1999 Second Protocol, Art. 1(b).
42 1999 Second Protocol, Art. 10 (enhanced protection).
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54 M. Sassòli, above note 39, pp. 566–567 (emphasis added).
55 Geneva Convention (I) for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field of 12 August 1949, 75 UNTS 31 (entered into force 21 October 1950), Art. 3.
56 Ibid., Art. 24; AP I, Art. 15(5); AP II, Art. 9; ICRC Customary Law Study, above note 26, Rule 27.
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82 A. Al-Dawoody, above note 60, pp. 167–168.
83 Ibid.
84 Ibid., p. 151.
85 A. Al-Dawoody, above note 79, p. 133.
86 Ibid.
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89 A. Al-Dawoody, above note 88, p. 438.
90 A. Al-Dawoody, above note 60, p. 111.
91 Ibid.
92 Ibid.
93 A. Z. Yamani, above note 64, p. 207.
94 Ibid.
95 2003 Convention, Art. 2(2)(e).
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102 Ibid., pp. 28–29.
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105 K. Bennoune, above note 61, p. 641.
106 C. Evans, above note 100, p. 13.
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109 M. E. Badar and N. Higgins, above note 11; Julie Fraser, “Exploring Legal Compatibilities and Pursuing Cultural Legitimacy: Islamic law and the ICC”, in J. Fraser and B. McGonigle Leyh (eds), above note 23, pp. 391–396.
110 M. E. Badar and N. Higgins, above note 11, pp. 515–516.
111 J. Fraser, above note 109, p. 393.
112 M. E. Badar and N. Higgins, above note 11, pp. 515–516.
113 Julie Fraser, “A Seat at the Table: Islamic Law's Neglected Potential in Universalising International Humanitarian Law”, in Norman Weiss and Andreas Zimmermann (eds.), Human Rights and International Humanitarian Law: Challenges Ahead, Edward Elgar, 2021 (forthcoming).
114 J. Fraser, above note 109, p. 394.
115 ICC, Prosecutor v. Al Hassan Ag Abdoul Aziz Ag Mohamed Ag Mahmoud, Case No. ICC-01/12-01/18-461-Corr-Red, Corrigendum to the Decision on the Confirmation of Charges, 13 November 2019.
