2. In Iran, wartime mobilization was partially carried out by the skillful manipulation of religious and cultural symbols, notably the concept of shahadat or martyrdom. Etymologically, the root of both the Arabic “shahadat” and the English “martyrdom” signifies “witnessing.” Qurᵓanic references to shahid (pi. shuhadaᵓ) vary in meaning. Depending on the context, it may imply either a witness, as in someone who affirms his or her acceptance of Islam by uttering the testimony of faith, the shahadat, or a martyr. When the latter is implied, the Qurᵓan enjoins us that those who fall in the cause of God are not dead but are living, and they are promised great rewards. [See Abedi, Mehdi and Legenhausen, Gary, Jihad and Shahadat: Struggle and Martyrdom in Islam, (Houston, Texas: The Institute for Research and Islamic Studies, 1986), 8–9Google Scholar]. In Shiᶜite Islam the concept of martyrdom is further embedded in the Karbala paradigm. The historical reference here is to Hossein, the son of Imam ᶜAli, who refused to swear allegiance to the caliph Yazid. Invited by the people of Kufa to become their leader, Hossein and his companions were intercepted by forces loyal to the caliph on the plains of Karbala on the 10th day of Muharram, 61 A. H. All the men, including Hossein, were slain. The memory of Karbala is kept alive through yearly commemorations during Ashura, the night Hossein fell, and through reenactments of the episode in performances of the tacziyeh. [See Fisher, Michael M. J., Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1980), 21–25Google Scholar].
