¹ See the preamble of the Resolution of the Institut de Droit international on Universal criminal jurisdiction with regard to the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes adopted in Krakow on Aug. 26, 2005, http://www.idi-iil.org/idiE/resolutionsE/2005_kra_03_3en.pdf.

² See O'Keefe, Roger, Universal Jurisdiction: Clarifying the Basic Concept, 2 J. Int'l Crim. Just 735 (2004)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³ Belgium has constituted a classical example. On the evolution of the Belgian legislation pertaining to universal jurisdiction, see d'Argent, Pierre, L'experience belge de la compétence universelle: Beaucoup de bruit pour rien? 108 Revue Générale de Droit International Public 597–632 (2004)Google Scholar; see also the unconditional universality adopted by the Spanish Constitutional Tribunal reversal of the decisions of the National High Court and the Supreme Court in the case of the Guatemalan Generals on Sept. 26, 2005, www.tribunalconstitucional.es. See Ascensio, Hervé, The Spanish Constitutional Tribunal's Decision in the Guatemalan Generals: Unconditional Universality is Back, 4 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 586–94 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ See d'Argent, Pierre & d'Aspremont, Jean, La Loi de Compétence Universelle Revue Mais pas Corrigée, Journal des Tribunaux 480–81 (2003)Google Scholar (discussing the 2003 amendment of the Belgian legislation). On July 25, 2009, Spain too introduced limitations to the exercise of universal jurisdiction, see Spain: Vote on Changes to Inquiry Law, N.Y. Times, June 26, 2009, p. A7Google Scholar; against this backdrop, Reydams has contended that we are now witnessing a “fall” of universal jurisdiction, see Reydams, Luc, The Rise and Fall of Universal Jurisdiction, in Handbook of International Criminal Law (Schabas, William. & Bernaz, Nadia eds., forthcoming), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1553734Google Scholar.

⁵ On the idea of representation behind universal jurisdiction, see Abi-Saab, Georges, The Proper Role of Universal Jurisdiction, 1 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 596 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ It is important to note that civil universal jurisdiction is less common, see U.S. Alien Tort Statute, 28 U.S.C. § 1350. See The Alien Tort Claims Act: An Analytical Anthology (Steinhardt, Ralph G. & D'Amato, Anthony eds., 1999)Google Scholar; Short, Aric k., Is the Alien Tort Statute Sacrosanct? Retaining Forum Non Conveniens in Human Rights Litigation, 33 N.Y.U.J. Int'l L & Pol. 1001–100 (2001)Google Scholar; Satterfield, Stephen, Still Crying Out for Clarification: the Scope of Liability under the Alien Tort Statute after Sosa, 77 Geo. Wash. L. Rev. 216–254 (2008)Google Scholar; Bellinger, John B., Enforcing Human Rights in U. S. Courts and Abroad: the Alien Tort Statute and Other Approaches, 42 Vand. J. Transnat'l L. 1–14 (2009)Google Scholar; Sebok, Anthony J., Taking Tort Law Seriously in the Alien Tort Statute, 33 Brook. J. Int'l L. 871–898 (2008)Google Scholar; Philip A., Scarborough, Rules of Decision for Issues Arising Under the Alien Tort Statute, 107 Colum. L. Rev. 457–502 (2007)Google Scholar; Talati, Erin, An Open Door to Ending Exploitation. Accountability for Violations of Informed Consent under the Alien Tort Statute, 155 U. Pa. L. Rev. 231–278 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ On the diverging understandings of criminal jurisdiction in the literature, see Dissenting Opinion of Judge ad hoc van den Wyngaert in the Case Concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of the Congo v. Belgium), 2002, I.C.J. 3, para. 44 (Feb. 14) [hereinafter Arrest Warrant case].

⁸ For similar understanding, see Kress, Claus, Universal Jurisdiction over International Crimes and the Institut de Droit International, 4 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 561, 565 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁹ In the same sense, see Abi-Saab, supra note 5, at 600.

¹⁰ Questions relating to the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v. Senegal), 2009 (Feb. 19), http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?p1=3&p2=3&code=bs&case=144&k=5e.

¹¹ Certain Criminal Proceedings in France (Republic of Congo v. France), 2003 (Apr. 13), Certain Criminal Proceedings in France (Congo v. Fr.), 2003 I.C.J. 102 (Provisional Measure Order of June 17), http://icj-cij.org/common/print.php?pr=65&p1=3&p2=1&case=129&p3=6.

¹² http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/129/16233.pdf.

¹³ Public Sitting, (Rwanda v. Belgium), 2001 (Oct. 19), CR 2001/10, at 11, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/121/4219.pdf?PHPSESSID=44b1ea02554d6a14c3326e674ee6f16e.

¹⁴ For some early comments on this decision, see d'Aspremont, Jean & Dopagne, Frédéric, La loi de compétence universelle devant la Cour internationale de Justice, Journal des Tribunaux 284 (2002)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ See generally Ryngaert, Cedric, Jurisdiction in International Law 9–10 (2008)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁶ See Principle 11 of the Princeton University Program in Law and Public Affairs, The Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction (2001). See also O'Keefe, supra note 2; AU-EU Expert Report on the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, Apr. 16, 2009, 8672/1/09 Rev 1, at 10; Kress, supra note 8.

¹⁷ On this distinction, see O'Keefe, Roger, The Grave Breaches Regime and Universal Jurisdiction, 7 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 811, 817, 827 (2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ See, e.g., Grotius, Hugo, The Law of War and Peace II ch. XXI para. 4 (1625)Google Scholar; Contra Beccaria, Traité des délits et des peines, para. 21.: “les juges ne sont pas les vengeurs du genre humain en général: un crime ne peut être puni que dans le pays où il a été commis.” For a review of universal jurisdiction in classical international legal theory, see Reydams, supra note 4.

¹⁹ See http://www.paclii.org/pits/en/treaty_database/1929/3.html.

²⁰ Convention for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, June 26, 1936, 198 LNTS 301; see also Starke, Joseph G., The Convention of 1936 for the Suppression of the Illicit Traffic in Dangerous Drugs, 31 Am. J. Int'l L. 31 (1937)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²¹ Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Dec. 9, 1948, 78 U.N.T.S. 277. Draft Article VII reads: “The High Contracting Parties pledge themselves to punish any offender under this Convention within any territory under their jurisdiction, irrespective of the nationality of the offender or the place where the offence has been committed.” Article VI of the Convention now reads “Persons charged with genocide or any of the other acts enumerated in Article 3 shall be tried by a competent tribunal of the State in the territory of which the act was committed, or by such international penal tribunal as may have jurisdiction with respect to those Contracting Parties which shall have accepted its jurisdiction.” On the drafting of the Genocide Convention, see generally Lippman, Matthew, The Drafting of the 1948 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, 3 B.U. Int'l L. J. 1 (1985)Google Scholar.

²² See O'Keefe, supra note 17.

²³ Among many examples of international treaties providing for the exercise of a criminal universal jurisdiction if the accused is found on the territory, see 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft or the 1984 Convention against Torture, Dec. 10, 1984, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85; see also the four 1949 Geneva Conventions: Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85; Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 85; Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Aug. 12, 1949,75 U.N.T.S. 135; Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War, Aug. 12, 1949, 75 U.N.T.S. 28.

²⁴ See the Report of the ILC Special Rapporteur Zdzislaw Galicki on the Obligation to Extradite or Prosecute (aut dedere aut judicare), U.N. Doc. A/CN.4/571, at 5 et seq. (July 12, 2006) [hereinafter Report on Obligation to Extradite or Prosecute]. The difference of wording does however not change the substance of the obligation. See Plachta, Michael, Aut Dedere Aut Judicare: An Overview of Modes of Implementation and Approaches, 6 Maastricht J. Eur. & Comp. L. 332 (1999)Google Scholar.

²⁵ Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, art. 7, Dec. 10, 1984, 1465 U.N.T.S. 85. For a particular application of that provision, see The Pinochet Case: Origins, Progress and Implications (Davis, Madeleine ed., 2003)Google Scholar; The Pinochet case: A Legal and Constitutional Analysis (Woodhouse, Diana ed., 2000)Google Scholar; see Millett, Lord, The Pinochet Case: some Personal Reflections, in International Law 7–10 (Evans, Malcolm ed., 2d ed. 2006)Google Scholar; Jennings, Robert, The Pinochet Extradition Case in the English Courts, in The International Legal System in Quest of Equity and Universality 677–98 (de Chazoumes, Laurence Boisson & Gowlland-Debbas, Vera eds., 2001)Google Scholar; Horowitz, Jodi, Regina v. Bartle and the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis and Others ex parte Pinochet: Universal Jurisdiction and Sovereign Immunity for Jus Cogens Violations, 23 Fordham Int'l L. J. 489–527 (1999)Google Scholar.

²⁶ See Plachta, supra note 24.

²⁷ convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft [Hijacking Convention], Dec. 16, 1970, 860 U.N.T.S. 105; see Kress, supra note 8, at 567-68.

²⁸ For an earlier form of these try-or-extradite clauses, see Articles 49,50, 129, & 146 of the 1949 Geneva Conventions as well as Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, art. 85.1, June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 3.

²⁹ See Grotius, supra note 18. On the differences between how Grotius designed the mechanism and its subsequent conventional implementation, see Report on Obligation to Extradite or Prosecute, supra note 23, at 2 et seq.

³⁰ See O'Keefe, supra note 17, at 828.

³¹ Higgins, Rosalyn, Problems and Process—International Law and How to Use It 64 (1994)Google Scholar; see also Colangelo, Anthony J., The Legal Limits of Universal Jurisdiction, 47 Va. J. Int'l L. 149, 166–67 (2005)Google Scholar; Cassese, Antonio, Is the Bell Tolling for Universality? A Plea for a Sensible Notion of Universal Jurisdiction, 1 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 589, 594 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see Kress, supra note 8, at 566.

³² Reydams, Luc, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspective 28 et seq. (2003)Google Scholar.

³³ See Reydams, supra note 4.

³⁴ The expression is from O'Keefe, supra note 17, at 825-26.

³⁵ See O'Keefe, supra note 2, at 751.

³⁶ Among others, see Inazumi, Mitzsue, Universal Jurisdiction in Modern International Law: Expansion of National Jurisdiction for Prosecuting Serious Crimes under International Law (2005)Google Scholar; Reydams, supra note 32, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspective; Ana Peyro Lopis, La compétence universelle en matière de crimes contre l'humanité (2003).

³⁷ By virtue of Article 17 of the Statute of the International Criminal Court, the exercise of universal jurisdiction could render inadmissible any prosecution on the same matter before the International Criminal Court; see Reydams, supra note 32, Universal Jurisdiction: International and Municipal Legal Perspective, supra note 36, at 221; d'Argent, supra note 3, at 602.

³⁸ For a very radical view, see Fletcher, George P., Against Universal Jurisdiction, 1 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 580–84 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A similar uneasiness has also been expressed toward international criminal proceedings in abstentia. See, e.g., Prosecutor v Blaskić, Case No. IT-95-14-AR, Review of the Decision of Trial Chamber II of 29 October 1997, para. 59 (July 18, 1997). On the question of human rights in international criminal proceedings, see Zappala, Salvatore, Human Rights in International Criminal Proceeding (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁴⁰ The expression has been used by Ryngaert, see id. at 1.

⁴¹ 71 Y.B. Inst. Int'l L. 218 (2005)Google Scholar.

⁴² See id. para. 2: “Universal jurisdiction is primarily based on customary international law. It can also be established under a multilateral treaty in the relations between the contracting parties, in particular by virtue of clauses which provide that a State party in the territory of which an alleged offender is found shall either extradite or try that person”. The Resolution of the Institut de Droit international on Universal criminal jurisdiction with regard to the crime of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes, (supra note 1).

⁴³ For a few examples, see Ferry, John E., Towards Completing the Charm: The Woodpulp Judgement, 19 Eur. Intellectual Property L. Rev. 21 (1989)Google Scholar; Bischoff, J.-M. & Kovar, R., L'application du droit communautaire de la concurrence aux entreprises établies à l'extérieur de la communauté 102 JDI 675 (1975)Google Scholar; Buxbaum, Hannah L., Transnational Regulatory Litigation, 46 Va. J. Int'l L. 251, 304 (2006)Google Scholar; see Ryngaert, supra note 15, at 21; Cassese, supra note 31, at 589-95.

⁴⁴ 1 Restatement of the Law (Third) of U.S. Foreign Relations 235-319, paras. 402–23 (1987)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ Wood Pulp, Joined Cases C/89, 104, 114, 117, and 125 to 129/85, 1993, ECR-1307.

⁴⁶ See, e.g., Jones v.Saudi Arabia, [2006] UKHL 26, para. 34.

⁴⁷ ILA, Report of the 69th Conference 403–31 (2000).

⁴⁸ AU-EU Expert Report on the Principle of Universal Jurisdiction, supra note 15, at 7 ff.

⁴⁹ See, e.g., International Federation of Human Rights, Position Paper to the United Nations General Assembly at its 64^th Session, October 2009, http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/FIDH_Position_Paper_to_the_GA_-_64.pdfGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁰ Joyner, Christopher C., Arresting Impunity: The Case of Universal Jurisdiction in Bringing War Criminals to Accountability, 59-. L. Contemp. Prob. Rev. 153, 169 (1996)Google Scholar; Bassiouni, Cherif M., Universal Jurisdiction for International Crimes: Historical Perspectives and Contemporaty Practice, 42 Va. J. Int'l L. 81, 148–52 (2001)Google Scholar; see also ECHR, Jorgić v. Germany App. No. 74613/01, July 12, 2007, paras. 55-72; Prosecutor v. Furundžija, Case No. IT-95-17-1-T, Trial Chamber II, para. 156, Dec. 10, 1998.

⁵¹ Arrest Warrant case, supra note 7.

⁵² Nationality Decrees in Tunis and Morocco, Advisory Opinion, 1923 P.C.I.J. (ser. B) No. 4, at 23-24.

⁵³ SS Lotus (France v. Turkey), 1927, P.C.I.J. (ser. A) No. 10, at 19.

⁵⁴ See Arrest Warrant case, supra note 7, dissenting opinion of Judge van den Wyngaert, para. 51. Mann, FA, The Doctrine of Jurisdiction in International Law, 111 Recueil Des Cours 35 (1964)Google Scholar; see also Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996, I.C.J. 95, 268 (July 8), declaration of Judge Bedjaoui, id. at 268 et seq. and the opinion of Judge Shahabuddeen, id. at 394-96.

⁵⁵ See Arrest Warrant case, supra note 7, para. 61.

Thirdly, after a person ceases to hold the office of Minister for Foreign Affairs, he or she will no longer enjoy all of the immunities accorded by international law in other States. Provided that it has jurisdiction under international law, a court of one State may try a former Minister for Foreign Affairs of another State in respect of acts committed prior or subsequent to his or her period of office, as well as in respect of acts committed during that period of office in a private capacity.

⁵⁶ See Advisory opinion on the accordance with international law of the unilateral declaration of independence in respect of Kosovo, July 22, 2010 (not yet published) the declaration of Judge Simma, at 1-3.

⁵⁷ Id. paras. 50-56 & 79-84.

⁵⁸ See Scobbie, Iain G.M., The Theorist as Judge: Hersch Lauterpacht's Concept of the International Judicial Function, 8 Eur. J. Int'l L. 264–298 (1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Arrest Warrant case, supra note 7, para. 50 the Joint Separate Opinion of Higgins, Kooijmans and Buergenthal and the Dissenting Opinion of Judge van den Wyngaert, para. 48 et seq.

⁵⁹ See, e.g., Spiermann, O., International legal argument in the Permanent Court of International Justice, The Rise of the International Judiciary 248–63 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Spiermam, O., A Permanent Court of International Justice, 72 Nordic Journal of International Law 399, 410–12 (2003)Google Scholar; Abi-Saab, supra note 5, at 601 (2003); Pellet, Alain, Lotus que de sottises on profere en ton nom! Remarques sur le concept de souveraineté duns la jurisprudence de la cour mondiale, in Mélanges en l'honneur de Jean-Pierre Puissochet: l'État souverain dans le monde d'aujourd'hui 215, 218 (2008)Google Scholar. While rejecting a volontarist reading of the Lotus decision, Pellet endorses the idea of a distribution of competences by international law.

⁶⁰ For a classical definition of material and formal sources, see Oppenheim, Lassa, 1 International Law 24 (8th ed., 1955)Google Scholar. See Corbett, P. E., The Consent of States and the Sources of the Law of Nations, 6 Brit. Y.B. Int'l 20 (1925)Google Scholar; Rousseau, Charles, 1 Principes généraux du droit international public 106–08 (1944)Google Scholar; Fitzmaurice, Gerald, Some Problems Regarding the Formal Sources of International Law, in Symbolae Verzijl 153 et seq. (1958)Google Scholar Abi-Saab, Georges, Les sources du droit international. Essai de deconstruction, in Liber Amicorum Eduardo Jimenez de Arechaga, 30 et seq (1994)Google Scholar; see also the controversial account of this distinction made by Scelle, Georges, Essai sur les sources formelles du droit international, in III Recueil sur les sources en l'honneur de Francois Gény 400–30 (1935)Google Scholar.

⁶¹ In the same sense, see Verhoeven, Joe, Droit International Public 136 (2000)Google Scholar.

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⁶³ Id. at 28.

⁶⁴ See Inazumi, supra note 36, at 138; Ryngaert, supra note 15, at 25.

⁶⁵ On this point, see infra note 71.

⁶⁶ In the same vein, see Verhoeven, Joe, Vers un ordre répressif universel?, 45 Annuaire Français de droit international 55–71 (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also d'Argent, supra note 3.

⁶⁷ Judge Fitzmaurice in his separate opinion in the Barcelona Traction case lent his support to the idea that reasonableness constrains the exercise of jurisdiction. See Light and Power Company Limited (Belgium v. Spain), Barcelona Traction, 1970, I.C.J. 3, 105. The Restatement of the Law, elevates it to a principle of public international law (supra note 44, paras. 402-03). Some elements of reasonableness are also enshrined in the abovementioned 2005 Resolution of the Institut de Droit international (supra note 1):

Any State having custody over an alleged offender, to the extent that it relies solely on universal jurisdiction, should carefully consider and, as appropriate, grant any extradition request addressed to it by a State having a significant link, such as primarily territoriality or nationality, with the crime, the offender, or the victim, provided such State is clearly able and willing to prosecute the alleged offender.

Id. para. 3d. See also Higgins, Rosalyn, The Legal Bases of Jurisdiction, in Extra-Territorial Application of Laws and Responses thereto 12 (Olmstead, C.J. ed., 1984)Google Scholar; Lowenfeld, Andreas F., International Litigation and the Quest for Reasonableness: Essays in Private International Law 77 (1996)Google Scholar.

⁶⁸ In his preliminary report to the Institut de Droit international, Tomuschat alluded to the possibility of abuse, see supra note 1. See also Akehurst, Michael, Jurisdiction in International Law, 46 Brit. Y.B. Int'l L. 145, 189 (1972–1973)Google Scholar. It must be acknowledged that the theory of abuse of rights is not totally unprecedented in international law. It usually is applied in the context of international judicial proceedings. See Case Concerning the Gabcikovo Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), 1997, I.C.J. 95 separate opinion. Judge Weeramantry; WTO Appelate Body, United States-Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products), WTO Doc, WT/DS58/AB/R (1998). In the context of substantive rights, see Politis, N.-S., Le Problème des limitations de la souveraineté et la théorie de l'abus de droit dam les rapports internationaux, 1 Recueil des cours 1 (1925)Google Scholar; Kiss, A.-C., L'abus de droit en droit international (1952)Google Scholar; Kuyper, P.-J., European Community Law and Extraterritoriality: Some Trends and New Developments 33 Int'l Comp. L.Q. 1013 (1984)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, see especially 101 5.

⁶⁹ Maier, Harold G., Jurisdictional Rules in Customary International Law, in Extraterritorial Jurisdiction in Theory and Practice 64, 69 (Meessen, Karl M. ed., 1996)Google Scholar; see also Ryngaert, supra note 15, at 142, 178.

⁷⁰ Ryngaert is of the same opinion, see Ryngaert, supra note 15, at 145. See generally Wood, Michael & Jamnejad, Maziar, The Principle of Non-Intervention, 22 Leiden J. Int'l L. 345–81 (2009)Google Scholar, or Verhoeven, J., Non-intervention: “affaires intérieures” ou “vie privée”?, in Liber Amicorum Michel Virally, Le droit international au service de la paix et du développement 493–500 (1991)Google Scholar.

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⁷² For a survey of the recent developements in the study of compliance in both international relations and international law scholarship, see Raustiala, Kal & Slaughter, Anne-Marie, International Law, International Relations and Compliance, in, The Handbook of International Relations (Carlnaes, Walter, Risse, Thomas, & Simmons, Beth eds., 2002)Google Scholar. For an insightful account of various compliance theories, see Guzman, Andrew T., A Compliance-Based Theory of International Law, 90 Cal. L. Rev. 1823 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a refreshing outlook, see also the recent empirical contribution of Scharf, Michael on the contemporary theories of compliance, International Law in Crisis: A Qualitative Emprical Contribution to the Compliance Debate, 31 Cardozo L. Rev. 45 (2009)Google Scholar.

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⁸⁰ “Considering that fundamental values of the international community are infringed by serious international crimes as defined by international law (hereinafter: international crimes); Affirming that universal jurisdiction is designed to protect and uphold these values, in particular human life, human dignity, and physical integrity, by allowing prosecution of international crimes.” Resolution of the Institut de Droit International, supra note 1, at 1.

⁸¹ Reydams, supra note 4.

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⁸⁴ A similar point can be made with respect to exercises of jurisdiction other than purely criminal, see Lowenfeld, Andreas, International Litigation and the Quest for Reasonableness, 244 Collected Courses 9, 43–44 (1994–I)Google Scholar. See also comments of Ryngaert, supra note 15, at 8.

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⁸⁶ The same is true with the use of international enforcement mechanisms. Such an objection is also heard with respect to the use of IHL enforcement mechanisms at the international level. See for instance the declaration of the president of the UN General Assembly on the ICC arrest warrant against the president of Sudan, Int'l Herald Trib., Mar. 26, 2009, at 6Google Scholar.

⁸⁷ See, e.g., International Council on Human Rights Policy, Hard Cases: Bringing Human Rights Violators to Justice Abroad. A Guide to Universal Junsdiction 20–21 (1999), http://www.ichrp.org/files/reports/5/201_report_en.pdfGoogle Scholar.

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⁹¹ UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Nov. 23, 1972, 1037 U.N.T.S. 151.

⁹² Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Jan. 27, 1967, 610 U.N.T.S. 205. See Jayaraj, Shri C., The Law of Outer Space and India, in India and International Law 265, 265 (Patel, Bimal ed., 2005)Google Scholar.

⁹³ Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, art. 4, Dec. 18, 1979, 1363 U.N.T.S. 3:

The exploration and use of the moon shall be the province of all mankind and shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scientific development. Due regard shall be paid to the interests of present and future generations as well as to the need to promote higher standards of living and conditions of economic and social progress and development in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations.

⁹⁴ Antarctic Treaty, Dec.1, 1959, 402 U.N.T.S. 71 and Protocol on Environment Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, Oct. 4, 1991, 30 ILM 1461 (1991). See Verhoeven, Joe, Sands, Philippe, & Bruce, Maxwell, The Antarctic Environment and International Law (1992)Google Scholar; Pinto, M. C. W., The International Community and Antarctica, 33 U. Miami L. Rev. 475 (1979)Google Scholar; Pinto, M. C. W., Governance in Antarctica, in Essays in Honour of Wang Tieya 587 (MacDonald, Ronald ed., 1994)Google Scholar.

⁹⁵ See The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Montego Bay, Dec. 10, 1982 499 U.N.T.S. 311, part. IX.

⁹⁶ Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Mar.22, 1985, 26 ILM 529 (1987).

⁹⁷ See Pardo, Arvid & Christol, Carl Q., The Common Interest: Tension Between the Whole and the Parts, in The Structure and Process of International Law 643, 647 (McDonald, John and Johnston, Douglas eds., 1983)Google Scholar.

⁹⁸ Oxman, Bernard, The International Commons, The International Public Interests and New Modes of International Law Making, in New Trends in International Lawmaking 30–33 (Delbrück, Jost & Heinz, Urlsala eds., 1996)Google Scholar.

⁹⁹ See Klabbers, Jan, The Meaning of Rules, 20 Int'l Relations 295 (2006)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁰ See for instance Owada, Judge Hisashi, Some Reflections on Justice in a Globalizing World, 97 Am. Society Int'l L. Proceedings 181 (2003)Google Scholar or Seita, Alex Y., Globalization and the Convergence of Values, 30 Cornell Int'l L. J. 429 (1997)Google Scholar.

¹⁰¹ Goldsmith, Jack & Posner, Eric, The Limits of International Law 128 (2005)Google Scholar (For Goldsmith and Posner, human rights serve the individual interests of liberal (Western) States for they are instruments to impose “codes of conduct” and coordinate “standards of civilization.” They can also foster the individual interest of non-liberal States as they allow to determine which behavior will be rewarded or punished by Western liberal States. For non-liberal States, they can constitute a means to unambiguously signal that they are engaged in a phase of transition from authoritarianism to liberal democracy)

¹⁰² Moravcsik, Andrew, The Origin of Human Rights Regimes: Democratic Delegation in Postwar Europe, 54 Int'l Org. 217, 220 et. seq. (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. (He construes human rights as the result of instrumental calculations about domestic policies. Drawing on the experience of postwar European democratization, Moravcsik argues that States are ready to relinquish a part of their sovereignty by adhering to a human rights regime in order to constrain the behaviour of subsequent domestic governments. Applying his theory beyond the European framework, he claims that newly established democracies use human rights regimes—in the broad sense—to “lock in” credible domestic policies through international commitments).

¹⁰³ Roth, Brad, Governmental Illegitimacy in International Law (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see d'Aspremont, Jean, Legitimacy of Governments in the Age of Democracy, 38 Nyu J. Int'l L. & Pol. 877 (2006)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁴ See generally Law, David, Globalization and the Future of Constitutional Rights, 102 Northwestern U. L. Rev. 1277 (2008)Google Scholar; see also Petersmann, Ernst-Ulrich, Time for a United Nations ‘Global Compact’ for Integrating Human Rights into the Law of Worldwide Organizations: Lessons from European Integration, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 621 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Contra Alston, Philip, Resisting the Merger and Acquisition of Human Rights by Trade law: A Reply to Petersmann, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 815 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; see also the criticisms of Lau, Holning, Human Rights and Globalization: Putting the Race to the Top in Perspective, Northwestern U. L. Rev. Colloquy, http://www.colloquy.law.northwestern.eduGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰⁵ See Ghai, Yash, Universalism and Relativism: Human Rights as a Framework for Negotiating Interethnic Claims, 21 Cardozo L. Rev. 1095, 1095 (2000)Google Scholar. On conflict prevention strategies, see generally, Quane, Helen, Rights in Conflict? The Rationale and Implications of Using Human Rights in Conflict Prevention Strategies, 47 Vand. J. Int'l L. 463 (2007)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁶ This idea can also be found in Donnelly, J., Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice 63–64 (2003)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁷ Yasuaki, Onuma, In Quest for Intercivilizational Human Rights, 1 Asia-Pacific J. Hum. Rts. & L. 53–88, 76–77 (2000)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁸ This is also acknowledged by liberals like Henkin, Louis, Politics and Values, 216 Collecte Courses 171 (1989-VI)Google Scholar.

¹⁰⁹ See Mégret, Frédéric, The Politics of International Criminal Justice, 13 Eur. J. Int'l L. 1261 (2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Beigbeder, Yves, Judging War Criminals: The Politics of International Justic (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For an account of International Humanitarian Law based on self-serving parameters, see Posner, Eric, A Theory of the Laws of War, Chicago John M. Olin Law & Economics Working Paper No. 160, http://www.law.uchicago.edu/lawecon/index.htmlGoogle Scholar. See the rejection of that approach by George Fletcher, P., Parochial versus Universal Criminal Law, 3 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 20, 25–26 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹¹⁰ Sornarajah, Muthu, An Overview of the Asian Approaches to International Humanitarian Law, 9 Aust. Y. B. Int'l L. 238 (1985)Google Scholar. On the contribution of Asian scholars to this debate, see generally, d'Aspremont, Jean, International Law in Asia: the Limits to the Western Constitutionalist and Liberal Doctrines, 13 Asian Y.B. Int'l L. 89 (2008)Google Scholar.

¹¹¹ Corfu Channel (UK v. Albania), 1995, I.C.J. 4, at 22.

¹¹² Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. 1951 15, at 23 (May 28):

The Convention was manifestly adopted for a purely humanitarian and civilizing purpose. It is indeed difficult to imagine a convention that might have this dual character to a greater degree, since its object, on the one hand, is to safeguard the very existence of certain human groups and, on the other, to confirm and endorse the most elementary principle of morality. In such a convention, the contracting States do not have any interests of their own; they merely have, one and all, a common interest, the accomplishment of those high purposes which are the raison d'être of the convention. Consequently, in a convention of this type, one cannot speak of individual advantages or disadvantages to States, or of the maintenance of a perfect contractual balance between rights and duties.

¹¹³ Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. US), 1986, I.C.J. 14 at 112-14 (June 27)

¹¹⁴ South West Africa (Ethiopia and Liberia v. South Africa) (Second Phase), 1966, I.C.J. 6, at 34 (July 18).

¹¹⁵ Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), 2007, I.C.J. para. 147 (Feb. 26).

¹¹⁶ d'Aspremont, Jean, The Foundations of the International Legal Order, 18 Finnish Y.B. Int'l L. 219 (2007)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁷ On the coexistence of normative orders, see the critical approach of Klabbers, Jan, The Concept of Treaty in International Law 121 (1996)Google Scholar. See also Gowlland-Debbas, , Judicial Insights into Fundamental Values and Interests of the International Community, in The International Court of Justice: Its Future Role After 50 Years 344 (Muller, A.S., Raič, D., & Thuránszky, J.M. eds., 1997)Google Scholar.

¹¹⁸ In the same vein, see Koskenniemi, Martti, From Apology to Utopia 388 (2005)Google Scholar. For a classical exemple of the difficulty to capture the practice, see ICJ, Case concerning the Dispute Regarding Navigational and Related Rights (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua), 2009, I.C.J., at Para. 141 (July 13). The particular difficulty to establish practice of absention, see PCIJ, Lotus, (ser. A), No. 10 at. 28 or ICJ, Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. U.S.), 1986, Merits, I.C.J. para. 188 et seq. (June 27).

¹¹⁹ This is why Kelsen argued that opinio juris is a fiction to disguise law-creating powers of judges. See Kelsen, Hans, Théorie du droit international coutumier, 10 Revue Internationale de la théorie du droit 253 (1939)Google Scholar. This indeterminacy and the correlative leeway of judges has led some scholars to call for an abandonment of custom as a source of customary international law. See Dunbar, N. C. H., The Myth of Customary International Law, 8 Aust. Y.B. Int'l L. 1 (1983)Google Scholar. For a criticism of this position, see contra Tasioulas, John, Opinio Juris and the Genesis of Custom: A Solution to the ‘Paradox’, 26 Aust. Y.B. Int'l L. 199 (2007)Google Scholar.

¹²⁰ On codification, see Sahovic, Milan, Le rôle et les méthodes de la codification et du développement progressif du droit international, in 2 Le Droit International 71 (1982)Google Scholar; de Velasco Vallejo, Manuel Diez, Législation et codification dans le droit international actuel, in 1 Essays in honor of Roberto Ago 247 (Giuffrè, A. ed., 1987)Google Scholar; Sette-Camara, Judge, The ILC Discourse and Method, Essays in honor of Roberto Ago 467 (1987)Google Scholar.

¹²¹ This is the reason why some authors have called for conventional instruments on this question. Cassese, Antonio, Is the Bell Tolling for Universality? A Plea for a Sensible Notion of Universal Jurisdiction, 1 J. Int'l Crim. Just. 595 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²² Principle 12: Inclusion of Universal Jurisdiction in Future Treaties.

¹²³ See, e.g., Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-95-16-T, para. 527 (Jan.14,2000).

¹²⁴ See Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, Study on Customary International Humanitarian Law: a Contribution to the Understanding and Respect for the Rule of law in Armed Conflict, 87 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 175 (2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See the critique of Boyle, Alan & Chinkin, Christine The Making of International Law 36 (2007)Google Scholar. See also the critique expressed by Bellinger, J. B. and Haynes, William J., A U.S. Government Response to the International Committee of the Red Cross Study Customary International Humanitarian Law Study, 46 ILM 514 (2007), http://www.defenselink.mil/home/pdf/Customary_International_Humanitiarian_Law.pdfGoogle Scholar; see the reaction of Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, Customary International Humanitarian Law—a Response to US Comments, 89 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 473 (2007)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁵ For an illustration, see Charney, Jonathon, Universal International Law, 87 Am. J. Int'l L. 529 (1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. See also Tomuschat, Christian, Obligations Arising for States without or against their Will, 241 Collected Courses 269 et seq. (1993-IV)Google Scholar. The theory of “new custom” has been insightfully analyzed by Georges Abi-Saab. See Abi-Saab, Georges, La Coutume dans tous ses états ou le dilemme du développement du droit international général dans un monde éclaté, in 1 Essays in Honor of Roberto Ago 62–65 (Giuffrè, A. Ed., 1987)Google Scholar; see the tentative reconciliation between this modern custom and the traditional custom by Roberts, Anthea Elizabeth, Traditional and Modern Approaches to Customary International Law: A Reconciliation, 95 Am. J. Int'l L. 757 (2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹²⁶ In the same sense, see Abi-Saab, supra note 125, at 63–64.

¹²⁷ I owe this argument to some interesting discussions with Professor Yuval Shany.

¹²⁸ See for instance the Alakrana Ship case. The ship was captured in the Indian Ocean and later freed by a Spanish vessel. See Cala, Andrés, Spain Arraigns Somalis Suspected of Piracy, Int'l Herald Trib., Oct. 14, 2009, at 3Google Scholar (noting justifications put forward by Spain when transferring the pirates to Spain). On the recent proceedings engaged against Somali pirates in the United States, see Rivera, Ray, Somali Man Pleads Guilty in 2009 Hijacking of Ship, N.Y. Times, May 18, 2010Google Scholar; Weiser, Benjamin, Somali ‘Man Accused in ‘09 Piracy May Plead Guilty, N.Y. Times, Apr. 12, 2010Google Scholar; Weiser, Benjamin, Pirate Suspect Charged as Adult in New York, N.Y. Times, Apr. 21, 2009Google Scholar.

¹²⁹ See Rubin, Alfred P., The Law of Piracy 391 (2d ed. 1998)Google Scholar.

¹³⁰ Dec. 10, 1982, 516 U.N.T.S. 205

¹³¹ See contra the 2d principle of the 2001 Princeton Principles on Universal Jurisdiction, supra note 16.

¹³² See, e.g., Verhoeven, J., Droit International Public 136 (2000)Google Scholar. See also Reydams, supra note 4.

¹³³ Security Council Resolution 1816, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1816 (June 2, 2008) of the Security Council has extended the entitlement of State to seize non-State actors having committed acts of piracy or armed robbery to the territorial waters of Somalia.

¹³⁴ See id. preamble.