Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rcrh6 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T02:10:51.522Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

“Modernization” and Agrarian Development in India, 1912–52

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 January 2020

Prakash Kumar Open the ORCID record for Prakash Kumar [Opens in a new window]
Prakash Kumar*
Affiliation:
Prakash Kumar (puk15@psu.edu) is Associate Professor of History and Asian Studies at Pennsylvania State University.
Get access

Abstract

India's agrarian history has for the most part been cast within colonial and nationalist frameworks or in analyses of modernity and development in the South Asian historiography on both sides of the independence divide. This leaves plenty of space to discuss both the vast engagement of American actors with Indian elite formations and modifications to the agrarian projects contingent upon those interactions. A focus on the Americanist drive for agrarian modernization in India allows for exploring the distinct cultural location of modernization in a long-term perspective and its engagement with colonial “development.” A study of their mutual interaction gives insights into modernization's somewhat distinct itinerary on the subcontinent and provides specificity to the history of the otherwise spatially wider American intervention in global and inter-Asian contexts.

Keywords

agrarian historyAllahabad Agricultural InstituteAmerican land grantscolonial scienceIndiamissionariesmodernizationRockefeller Foundationself-help
Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 79 , Issue 3 , August 2020 , pp. 633 - 658
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc., 2020

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

List of References

Missouri Historical Society. 1953. Mason Vaugh, “Mechanization for the Small Farmer.” A speech given at the Eighth Pacific Science Conference, Manila, Philippines, November 14–28, 1953. Mason Vaugh Papers, C 2639, Folder 140.Google Scholar
Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 1963a. Letter from Frederick G. Roberts to Gary Hess. Graduate School Academic Records, Box 15.Google Scholar
Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 1963b. Letter from Gary Hess to Registrar, Princeton. Graduate School Academic Records, Box 15.Google Scholar
Office of the Registrar Records, Princeton University. 1903. “Higginbottom, Sam, Class of 1903.” AC 116, Series 1: Student Records, Box 98.Google Scholar
Ohio State University Archives. n.d. “Higginbottom, Sam.” Graduation index.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1918. Higginbottom's letter to Wallace Buttrick, dated February 23, 1918. Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller Records, Educational Interests, Series G (FA 316), Educational Area: Foreign College, Box 124, Folder 933, “Foreign Colleges – Allahabad Agricultural Institute, India,” 1918–28, RAC files.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1921a. Higginbottom's letter to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., dated April 8, 1921.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1921b. John D. Rockefeller's letter to A. L. Boulware of Board of Foreign Missions, dated April 23, 1921 (for $50,000 grant to AAI).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1926a. Ethelyn Higginbottom's letter to Mr. Thomas B. Appleget, dated January 18, 1926 (for $5,000 annual recurring grant between 1925 and 1932).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1926b. Sam Higginbottom's letter to Mr. Appleget, dated February 3, 1926 (for $5,000 annual recurring grant between 1925 and 1932).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1928. “Allahabad Agricultural Institute,” dated May 17, 1928, p. 154.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1934. “Conversation with Dr. Petty,” dated October 30, 1934. Davison Fund Inc. Records, (II) (FA 080), “Allahabad Agricultural Institute, 1934–38,” Series 3, Declinations, Box 23, Folder 177.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1935. “True Copy, Governor, United Provinces,” from Governor's Camp, dated December 21, 1935.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936a. Higginbottom's letter to Rockefeller Foundation, dated June 9, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936b. Letter from G. S. Bezman, Addl. Dy. Secretary, Govt. of India, Dept. of Education, Health and Lands, dated May 22, 1936, to Principal, AAI.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936c. Letter from Norma S. Thompson of Rockefeller Foundation to Higginbottom, dated July 20, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936d. “Memorandum of conversation with Dr. Henry Taylor,” dated August 18, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center C. 1950a. Mosher's letter to Strode, dated May 15, 1950. Projects, RG 1.2 (FA387), Series 464: India, Box 28, Folder 217, “Allahabad Agricultural Institute 1948–50.”Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center C. 1950b. Strode's letter to Mosher, dated April 29, 1950.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1956a. Letter from F. F. Hill, Ford Foundation, to J. Lossing Buck, CECA, dated May 2, 1956, enclosure: “GRANT TO ALLAHABAD AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE – BRIEF HISTORY.” Allahabad Agricultural Institute – Agricultural Extension Training and Evaluation,” Record Group 1 (FA078), Series 3: Research and Training Network; Sub-Series 3.3: Research and Training Network – Grants, Box 1, Folder 3, 1955–1963.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1956b. Letter from H. S. Azariah, Principal, AAI, to J. Lossing Buck, CECA, dated July 4, 1956.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1960. Letter from B. S. Massey, AAI, to Arthur Mosher, CECA, dated August 30, 1960.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center E. 1958. Arthur Mosher, “The role of agriculture in underdeveloped countries and United States policy.” Rockefeller Brothers Funds Records (FA005), Record Group 4, Series C: Subpanel III, Box 21, Folder 240, “Correspondence; Papers – Mosher, Arthur T., 1956–61.Google Scholar
Allison, W. L., ed. n.d. One Hundred Years of Christian Work of the North India Mission of the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A. Mysore: Wesley Press.Google Scholar
American Historical Review. 2011. “AHR Roundtable: Historians and the Question of ‘Modernity’: Introduction.” 116(3):631–37.Google Scholar
Arnold, David. 2005. “Agriculture and ‘Improvement’ in Early Colonial India: A Pre-history of Development.” Journal of Agrarian Change 5(4):505–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basu, Rajsekhar. 2016. “Missionaries as Agricultural Pioneers: Protestant Missionaries and Agricultural Improvements in Twentieth-Century India.” In Tilling the Land: Agricultural Knowledge and Practices in Colonial India, eds. Kumar, Deepak and Raha, Bipasha, 99–121. Delhi: Primus Books.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A. 1997. Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayly, C. A.. 2011. Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, Kim. 2003. “Lakshmi and the Scientific Housewife: A Transnational Account of Indian Women's Development and Production of an Indian Modernity.” Economic and Political Weekly 38(11):1055–68.Google Scholar
Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata. 1997. “Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and Nationalist Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective.” In International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, eds. Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall, 45–63. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Briggs, Asa. 1987. “Samuel Smiles: The Gospel of Self-Help.” History Today 37(5):37–44.Google Scholar
Bushman, Richard Lyman. 1999. “A Poet, a Planter, and a Nation of Farmers.” Journal of the Early Republic 19(1):1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Paul A. 1954. The Decline and Revival of the Social Gospel: Social and Political Liberalism in American Protestant Churches, 1920–1940. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Caton, Brian P. 2013. “Writing the History of a Colonial Institution: The Case of the Government Cattle Farm, Hissar.” NMML Occasional Paper, History and Society, n.s., 38. Delhi: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library.Google Scholar
Caton, Brian P.. 2014. “The Imperial Ambition of Science and Its Discontents: Animal Breeding in Nineteenth-Century Punjab.” In Shifting Ground: People, Animals, and Mobility in India's Environmental History, eds. Rangarajan, Mahesh and Sivaramakrishnan, K., 132–54. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2011. “The Muddle of Modernity.” American Historical Review 116(3):663–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Nandini. 2011. The Making of Indian Secularism: Empire, Law and Christianity, 1830–1960. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 1993. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Coventry, Bernard. 1912. “Has the Fertility of Land in India Decreased?” Agricultural Journal of India 7(1):45–54.Google Scholar
Cullather, Nick. 2010. The Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle against Poverty in Asia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Curtis, Susan. 1991. A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern American Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, Clive. 1993. Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Ekbladh, David. 2009. The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Christopher H. 2017. The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer-Tiné, Harald. 2018. “The YMCA and Low-Modernist Rural Development in South Asia, c. 1922–1957.” Past & Present 240(1):193–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, Gilbert C. 1962. “The Historical Development of Agricultural Fundamentalism in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Farm Economics 44(5):1203–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forrester, Duncan B. 1980. Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India. Richmond, UK: Curzon.Google Scholar
Frykenberg, Robert E. 1976. “The Impact of Conversion and Social Reform upon Society in South India during the Late Company Period: Questions Concerning Hindu-Christian Encounters, with Special Reference to Tinnevelly.” In Indian Society and the Beginnings of Modernization, 1830–1850, eds. Philips, C. H. and Wainwright, M. D., 187–243. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.Google Scholar
Garlitz, Richard. 2018. A Mission for Development: Utah Universities and the Point Four Program in Iran. Logan: Utah State University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, Sanjukta. 2017. “Scientific Knowledge and Practices of Green Manuring in Bengal Presidency, 1909–1925.” In Memory, Identity and the Colonial Encounter in India: Essays in Honour of Peter Robb, eds. Rashkow, Ezra, Ghosh, Sanjukta, and Chakrabarti, Upal, 298–319. New Delhi: Routledge India.Google Scholar
Gidwani, Vinay. 2008. Capital Interrupted: Agrarian Development and the Politics of Work in India. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Gilman, Nils. 2003. Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Griswold, Alfred Whitney. 1946. “The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson.” American Political Science Review 40(4):657–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griswold, Alfred Whitney. 1963. Farming and Democracy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Gupta, Akhil. 1998. Postcolonial Developments: Agriculture in the Making of Modern India. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, Gary Ray. 1967. Sam Higginbottom of Allahabad: Pioneer of Point Four to India. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. 1993. Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1911. “A Report of Economic Conditions in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, India.” Master's thesis, Princeton University.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1921. The Gospel and the Plow, or, The Old Gospel and Modern Farming in Ancient India. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1949. Sam Higginbottom, Farmer: An Autobiography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Hofstadter, Richard. 1948. “Thomas Jefferson: The Aristocrat as Democrat.” In The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It, 18–43. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Houghton, Graham. 1983. The Impoverishment of Dependency: The History of the Protestant Church in Madras, 1870–1920. Madras: Christian Literature Society.Google Scholar
Howard, Albert, and Howard, Gabrielle. 1912. “The Improvement of Indian Wheat.” Agricultural Journal of India 8:27–34.Google Scholar
Howard, Albert, and Howard, Gabrielle. 1928. The Improvement of Indian Wheat: A Brief Summary of the Investigations Carried Out at Pusa from 1905 to 1924 Including an Account of the New Pusa Hybrids. Bulletin No. 171, Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Calcutta: Government of India.Google Scholar
Hutchison, William R. 2013. Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Immerwahr, Daniel. 2012. “Modernization and Development in U.S. Foreign Relations.” Passport 43:22–25.Google Scholar
Immerwahr, Daniel. 2015. Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kumar, Prakash. 2019. “‘A Big Machine Not Working Properly’: Elite Narratives of India's Community Projects, 1952–58.” Technology and Culture 60(4):1027–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, Prakash, Lorek, Timothy, Olsson, Tore C., Sackley, Nicole, Schmalzer, Sigrid, and Laveaga, Gabriela Soto. 2017. “Roundtable: New Narratives of the Green Revolution.” Agricultural History 91(3):397–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latham, Michael E. 2000. Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Latham, Michael E.. 2010. The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1911. “The Breeding of Improved Cottons in the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 6:111–28.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1912a. Notes on the Incidence and Effect of Sterility and of Cross-Fertilisation in the Indian Cottons. London: W. Thacker & Co.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1912b. Wheat Experiments on the Botanical Area, Cawnpore, and Their Bearing on Wheat Cultivation in the United Provinces. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1921. The Bases of Agricultural Practice and Economics in the United Provinces, India. Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer & Sons.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1922. “The Trend of Agricultural Development in the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 7:10–22.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1923a. “The Cattle Problem of the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 18:330–48.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1923b. The Foundations of Indian Agriculture. 2nd ed.Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer & Sons.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1935. Unity: National and Imperial. London: George Allen.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin, and Pershad, Ram. 1914. Studies in Indian Cottons. London: W. Thacker & Co.Google Scholar
Lin, James. 2015. “Sowing Seeds and Knowledge: Agricultural Development in Taiwan and the World.” East Asian Science, Technology and Society 9(2):127–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ludden, David. 1992. “India's Development Regimes.” In Colonialism and Culture, ed. Dirks, Nicholas B., 247–87. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Ludden, David. 1999. An Agrarian History of South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantena, Karuna. 2010. Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, Henry F. 1949. Protestant Churches and Industrial America. New York: Harper and Brothers.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Thomas R. 1995. The New Cambridge History of India, Ideologies of the Raj. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosher, Arthur Theodore. 1946. This Is India. New York: Friendship Press.Google Scholar
Mosher, Arthur Theodore. 1977. Resume of Rural Development Experience. New York: Agricultural Development Council.Google Scholar
Mosher, Arthur T. Jr.,, ed. 2001. The Life and Work of Arthur T. Mosher. Privately published.Google Scholar
Mosse, David. 2003. The Rule of Water: Statecraft, Ecology and Collective Action in South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nally, David, and Taylor, Stephen. 2015. “The Politics of Self-Help: The Rockefeller Foundation, Philanthropy and the ‘Long’ Green Revolution.” Political Geography 49:51–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oddie, Geoffrey. 1979. Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms, 1850–1900. New Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
O'Hanlon, Rosalind, and Washbrook, David. 1992. “After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 34(1):141–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsson, Tore C. 2017. Agrarian Crossings: Reformers and the Remaking of the US and Mexican Countryside. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Prakash, Gyan. 1990. “Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 32(2):383–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. North India Mission. 1936. After One Hundred Years: Being Papers Presented at the Centennial Meeting of the North India Mission of the Presbyterian Church of the U.S.A. at Landour, June 26 to July 2. Bangalore: Scripture Literature Press.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1981. “British Rule and Indian ‘Improvement.’” Economic History Review, n.s., 34(4):507–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1988. “Bihar, the Colonial State and Agricultural Development in India, 1880–1920.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 25(2):205–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robb, Peter. 2007. Peasants, Political Economy, and Law. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roy, Tirthankar. 2006–7. “Roots of Agrarian Crisis in Interwar India: Retrieving a Narrative.” Economic and Political Weekly 41(52):5389–5400.Google Scholar
Sackley, Nicole. 2011. “The Village as Cold War Site: Experts, Development, and the History of Rural Reconstruction.” Journal of Global History 6(3):481–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sackley, Nicole. 2013. “Village Models: Etawah, India, and the Making and Remaking of Development in the Early Cold War.” Diplomatic History 37(4):749–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satya, Laxman D. 2004. Ecology, Colonialism and Cattle: Central India in the Nineteenth Century. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmalzer, Sigrid. 2016. Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, Theodore W. 1959. “Investment in Man: An Economist's View.” Social Science Review 33(2):109–17.Google Scholar
Schultz, Theodore W.. 1964. Transforming Traditional Agriculture. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, Benjamin Robert. 2018. Hungry Nation: Food, Famine, and the Making of Modern India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Mrinalini. 2006. Specters of Mother India: The Global Restructuring of an Empire. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Subir. 2008. “Lineages of the Developmentalist State: Transnationality and Village India, 1900–1965.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50(1):57–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sivaramakrishnan, K., and Agrawal, Arun, eds. 2003. Regional Modernities: The Cultural Politics of Development in India. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Smiles, Samuel. [1853] 1986. Self Help. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Stross, Randall E. 1986. The Stubborn Earth: American Agriculturists on Chinese Soil, 1898–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Subramanian, Ajantha. 2009. Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Vaugh, Mason, Azariah, H. S., and Bhatnagar, S. C.. 1945. “A New Experimental Farm.” Allahabad Farmer 19 (March):51–54.Google Scholar
Viswanath, Rupa. 2014. The Pariah Problem: Caste, Religion, and the Social in Modern India. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Webster, John Crosby Brown. 1971. “The Christian Community and Change in North India: A History of the Punjab and North Indian Missions of the Presbyterian Church of the U.S.A., 1834–1914.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Webster, John Crosby Brown. 1987. “American Presbyterian Global Mission Policy: An Overview of 150 Years.” American Presbyterians 65(2):71–84.Google Scholar
White, Ben. 2013. “Software for Asia's Green Revolution: The Agricultural Development Council, Arthur Mosher and ‘Getting Agriculture Moving.’” Rockefeller Archive Center.Google Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 1997. “The Development of Professor Mahalanobis.” Economy and Society 26(3):434–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 1999. “British and Indian Ideas of ‘Development’: Decoding Political Conventions in the Late Colonial State.” Itinerario 23(3–4):162–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 2001. “Uses of Scientific Argument: The Case of ‘Development’ in India, c 1930–1950.” Economic and Political Weekly 36(39):3689–3702.Google Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 2005. Developing India: An Intellectual and Social History, c. 1930–50. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Missouri Historical Society. 1953. Mason Vaugh, “Mechanization for the Small Farmer.” A speech given at the Eighth Pacific Science Conference, Manila, Philippines, November 14–28, 1953. Mason Vaugh Papers, C 2639, Folder 140.Google Scholar
Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 1963a. Letter from Frederick G. Roberts to Gary Hess. Graduate School Academic Records, Box 15.Google Scholar
Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University. 1963b. Letter from Gary Hess to Registrar, Princeton. Graduate School Academic Records, Box 15.Google Scholar
Office of the Registrar Records, Princeton University. 1903. “Higginbottom, Sam, Class of 1903.” AC 116, Series 1: Student Records, Box 98.Google Scholar
Ohio State University Archives. n.d. “Higginbottom, Sam.” Graduation index.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1918. Higginbottom's letter to Wallace Buttrick, dated February 23, 1918. Office of the Messrs. Rockefeller Records, Educational Interests, Series G (FA 316), Educational Area: Foreign College, Box 124, Folder 933, “Foreign Colleges – Allahabad Agricultural Institute, India,” 1918–28, RAC files.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1921a. Higginbottom's letter to John D. Rockefeller, Jr., dated April 8, 1921.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1921b. John D. Rockefeller's letter to A. L. Boulware of Board of Foreign Missions, dated April 23, 1921 (for $50,000 grant to AAI).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1926a. Ethelyn Higginbottom's letter to Mr. Thomas B. Appleget, dated January 18, 1926 (for $5,000 annual recurring grant between 1925 and 1932).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1926b. Sam Higginbottom's letter to Mr. Appleget, dated February 3, 1926 (for $5,000 annual recurring grant between 1925 and 1932).Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center A. 1928. “Allahabad Agricultural Institute,” dated May 17, 1928, p. 154.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1934. “Conversation with Dr. Petty,” dated October 30, 1934. Davison Fund Inc. Records, (II) (FA 080), “Allahabad Agricultural Institute, 1934–38,” Series 3, Declinations, Box 23, Folder 177.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1935. “True Copy, Governor, United Provinces,” from Governor's Camp, dated December 21, 1935.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936a. Higginbottom's letter to Rockefeller Foundation, dated June 9, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936b. Letter from G. S. Bezman, Addl. Dy. Secretary, Govt. of India, Dept. of Education, Health and Lands, dated May 22, 1936, to Principal, AAI.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936c. Letter from Norma S. Thompson of Rockefeller Foundation to Higginbottom, dated July 20, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center B. 1936d. “Memorandum of conversation with Dr. Henry Taylor,” dated August 18, 1936.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center C. 1950a. Mosher's letter to Strode, dated May 15, 1950. Projects, RG 1.2 (FA387), Series 464: India, Box 28, Folder 217, “Allahabad Agricultural Institute 1948–50.”Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center C. 1950b. Strode's letter to Mosher, dated April 29, 1950.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1956a. Letter from F. F. Hill, Ford Foundation, to J. Lossing Buck, CECA, dated May 2, 1956, enclosure: “GRANT TO ALLAHABAD AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE – BRIEF HISTORY.” Allahabad Agricultural Institute – Agricultural Extension Training and Evaluation,” Record Group 1 (FA078), Series 3: Research and Training Network; Sub-Series 3.3: Research and Training Network – Grants, Box 1, Folder 3, 1955–1963.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1956b. Letter from H. S. Azariah, Principal, AAI, to J. Lossing Buck, CECA, dated July 4, 1956.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center D. 1960. Letter from B. S. Massey, AAI, to Arthur Mosher, CECA, dated August 30, 1960.Google Scholar
Rockefeller Archive Center E. 1958. Arthur Mosher, “The role of agriculture in underdeveloped countries and United States policy.” Rockefeller Brothers Funds Records (FA005), Record Group 4, Series C: Subpanel III, Box 21, Folder 240, “Correspondence; Papers – Mosher, Arthur T., 1956–61.Google Scholar
Allison, W. L., ed. n.d. One Hundred Years of Christian Work of the North India Mission of the Presbyterian Church, U.S.A. Mysore: Wesley Press.Google Scholar
American Historical Review. 2011. “AHR Roundtable: Historians and the Question of ‘Modernity’: Introduction.” 116(3):631–37.Google Scholar
Arnold, David. 2005. “Agriculture and ‘Improvement’ in Early Colonial India: A Pre-history of Development.” Journal of Agrarian Change 5(4):505–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Basu, Rajsekhar. 2016. “Missionaries as Agricultural Pioneers: Protestant Missionaries and Agricultural Improvements in Twentieth-Century India.” In Tilling the Land: Agricultural Knowledge and Practices in Colonial India, eds. Kumar, Deepak and Raha, Bipasha, 99–121. Delhi: Primus Books.Google Scholar
Bayly, C. A. 1997. Empire and Information: Intelligence Gathering and Social Communication in India, 1780–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bayly, C. A.. 2011. Recovering Liberties: Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berry, Kim. 2003. “Lakshmi and the Scientific Housewife: A Transnational Account of Indian Women's Development and Production of an Indian Modernity.” Economic and Political Weekly 38(11):1055–68.Google Scholar
Bhabha, Homi K. 1994. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.Google Scholar
Bose, Sugata. 1997. “Instruments and Idioms of Colonial and Nationalist Development: India's Historical Experience in Comparative Perspective.” In International Development and the Social Sciences: Essays on the History and Politics of Knowledge, eds. Cooper, Frederick and Packard, Randall, 45–63. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Briggs, Asa. 1987. “Samuel Smiles: The Gospel of Self-Help.” History Today 37(5):37–44.Google Scholar
Bushman, Richard Lyman. 1999. “A Poet, a Planter, and a Nation of Farmers.” Journal of the Early Republic 19(1):1–14.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carter, Paul A. 1954. The Decline and Revival of the Social Gospel: Social and Political Liberalism in American Protestant Churches, 1920–1940. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Caton, Brian P. 2013. “Writing the History of a Colonial Institution: The Case of the Government Cattle Farm, Hissar.” NMML Occasional Paper, History and Society, n.s., 38. Delhi: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library.Google Scholar
Caton, Brian P.. 2014. “The Imperial Ambition of Science and Its Discontents: Animal Breeding in Nineteenth-Century Punjab.” In Shifting Ground: People, Animals, and Mobility in India's Environmental History, eds. Rangarajan, Mahesh and Sivaramakrishnan, K., 132–54. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2000. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Chakrabarty, Dipesh. 2011. “The Muddle of Modernity.” American Historical Review 116(3):663–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Nandini. 2011. The Making of Indian Secularism: Empire, Law and Christianity, 1830–1960. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chatterjee, Partha. 1993. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Coventry, Bernard. 1912. “Has the Fertility of Land in India Decreased?” Agricultural Journal of India 7(1):45–54.Google Scholar
Cullather, Nick. 2010. The Hungry World: America's Cold War Battle against Poverty in Asia. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Curtis, Susan. 1991. A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern American Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Dewey, Clive. 1993. Anglo-Indian Attitudes: The Mind of the Indian Civil Service. London: Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Ekbladh, David. 2009. The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Evans, Christopher H. 2017. The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fischer-Tiné, Harald. 2018. “The YMCA and Low-Modernist Rural Development in South Asia, c. 1922–1957.” Past & Present 240(1):193–234.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fite, Gilbert C. 1962. “The Historical Development of Agricultural Fundamentalism in the Nineteenth Century.” Journal of Farm Economics 44(5):1203–11.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forrester, Duncan B. 1980. Caste and Christianity: Attitudes and Policies on Caste of Anglo-Saxon Protestant Missions in India. Richmond, UK: Curzon.Google Scholar
Frykenberg, Robert E. 1976. “The Impact of Conversion and Social Reform upon Society in South India during the Late Company Period: Questions Concerning Hindu-Christian Encounters, with Special Reference to Tinnevelly.” In Indian Society and the Beginnings of Modernization, 1830–1850, eds. Philips, C. H. and Wainwright, M. D., 187–243. London: School of Oriental and African Studies.Google Scholar
Garlitz, Richard. 2018. A Mission for Development: Utah Universities and the Point Four Program in Iran. Logan: Utah State University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, Sanjukta. 2017. “Scientific Knowledge and Practices of Green Manuring in Bengal Presidency, 1909–1925.” In Memory, Identity and the Colonial Encounter in India: Essays in Honour of Peter Robb, eds. Rashkow, Ezra, Ghosh, Sanjukta, and Chakrabarti, Upal, 298–319. New Delhi: Routledge India.Google Scholar
Gidwani, Vinay. 2008. Capital Interrupted: Agrarian Development and the Politics of Work in India. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Gilman, Nils. 2003. Mandarins of the Future: Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Griswold, Alfred Whitney. 1946. “The Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson.” American Political Science Review 40(4):657–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griswold, Alfred Whitney. 1963. Farming and Democracy. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Gupta, Akhil. 1998. Postcolonial Developments: Agriculture in the Making of Modern India. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hess, Gary Ray. 1967. Sam Higginbottom of Allahabad: Pioneer of Point Four to India. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.Google Scholar
Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. 1993. Righteous Discontent: The Women's Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1911. “A Report of Economic Conditions in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, India.” Master's thesis, Princeton University.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1921. The Gospel and the Plow, or, The Old Gospel and Modern Farming in Ancient India. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
Higginbottom, Sam. 1949. Sam Higginbottom, Farmer: An Autobiography. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.Google Scholar
Hofstadter, Richard. 1948. “Thomas Jefferson: The Aristocrat as Democrat.” In The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It, 18–43. New York: Vintage Books.Google Scholar
Houghton, Graham. 1983. The Impoverishment of Dependency: The History of the Protestant Church in Madras, 1870–1920. Madras: Christian Literature Society.Google Scholar
Howard, Albert, and Howard, Gabrielle. 1912. “The Improvement of Indian Wheat.” Agricultural Journal of India 8:27–34.Google Scholar
Howard, Albert, and Howard, Gabrielle. 1928. The Improvement of Indian Wheat: A Brief Summary of the Investigations Carried Out at Pusa from 1905 to 1924 Including an Account of the New Pusa Hybrids. Bulletin No. 171, Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa. Calcutta: Government of India.Google Scholar
Hutchison, William R. 2013. Errand to the World: American Protestant Thought and Foreign Missions. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Immerwahr, Daniel. 2012. “Modernization and Development in U.S. Foreign Relations.” Passport 43:22–25.Google Scholar
Immerwahr, Daniel. 2015. Thinking Small: The United States and the Lure of Community Development. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Kumar, Prakash. 2019. “‘A Big Machine Not Working Properly’: Elite Narratives of India's Community Projects, 1952–58.” Technology and Culture 60(4):1027–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, Prakash, Lorek, Timothy, Olsson, Tore C., Sackley, Nicole, Schmalzer, Sigrid, and Laveaga, Gabriela Soto. 2017. “Roundtable: New Narratives of the Green Revolution.” Agricultural History 91(3):397–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Latham, Michael E. 2000. Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar
Latham, Michael E.. 2010. The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1911. “The Breeding of Improved Cottons in the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 6:111–28.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1912a. Notes on the Incidence and Effect of Sterility and of Cross-Fertilisation in the Indian Cottons. London: W. Thacker & Co.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1912b. Wheat Experiments on the Botanical Area, Cawnpore, and Their Bearing on Wheat Cultivation in the United Provinces. Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1921. The Bases of Agricultural Practice and Economics in the United Provinces, India. Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer & Sons.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1922. “The Trend of Agricultural Development in the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 7:10–22.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1923a. “The Cattle Problem of the United Provinces.” Agricultural Journal of India 18:330–48.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1923b. The Foundations of Indian Agriculture. 2nd ed.Cambridge, UK: W. Heffer & Sons.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin. 1935. Unity: National and Imperial. London: George Allen.Google Scholar
Leake, Hugh Martin, and Pershad, Ram. 1914. Studies in Indian Cottons. London: W. Thacker & Co.Google Scholar
Lin, James. 2015. “Sowing Seeds and Knowledge: Agricultural Development in Taiwan and the World.” East Asian Science, Technology and Society 9(2):127–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ludden, David. 1992. “India's Development Regimes.” In Colonialism and Culture, ed. Dirks, Nicholas B., 247–87. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Ludden, David. 1999. An Agrarian History of South Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mantena, Karuna. 2010. Alibis of Empire: Henry Maine and the Ends of Liberal Imperialism. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
May, Henry F. 1949. Protestant Churches and Industrial America. New York: Harper and Brothers.Google Scholar
Metcalf, Thomas R. 1995. The New Cambridge History of India, Ideologies of the Raj. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mosher, Arthur Theodore. 1946. This Is India. New York: Friendship Press.Google Scholar
Mosher, Arthur Theodore. 1977. Resume of Rural Development Experience. New York: Agricultural Development Council.Google Scholar
Mosher, Arthur T. Jr.,, ed. 2001. The Life and Work of Arthur T. Mosher. Privately published.Google Scholar
Mosse, David. 2003. The Rule of Water: Statecraft, Ecology and Collective Action in South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Nally, David, and Taylor, Stephen. 2015. “The Politics of Self-Help: The Rockefeller Foundation, Philanthropy and the ‘Long’ Green Revolution.” Political Geography 49:51–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oddie, Geoffrey. 1979. Social Protest in India: British Protestant Missionaries and Social Reforms, 1850–1900. New Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar
O'Hanlon, Rosalind, and Washbrook, David. 1992. “After Orientalism: Culture, Criticism, and Politics in the Third World.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 34(1):141–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olsson, Tore C. 2017. Agrarian Crossings: Reformers and the Remaking of the US and Mexican Countryside. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Prakash, Gyan. 1990. “Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 32(2):383–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. North India Mission. 1936. After One Hundred Years: Being Papers Presented at the Centennial Meeting of the North India Mission of the Presbyterian Church of the U.S.A. at Landour, June 26 to July 2. Bangalore: Scripture Literature Press.Google Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1981. “British Rule and Indian ‘Improvement.’” Economic History Review, n.s., 34(4):507–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robb, Peter. 1988. “Bihar, the Colonial State and Agricultural Development in India, 1880–1920.” Indian Economic and Social History Review 25(2):205–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Robb, Peter. 2007. Peasants, Political Economy, and Law. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Roy, Tirthankar. 2006–7. “Roots of Agrarian Crisis in Interwar India: Retrieving a Narrative.” Economic and Political Weekly 41(52):5389–5400.Google Scholar
Sackley, Nicole. 2011. “The Village as Cold War Site: Experts, Development, and the History of Rural Reconstruction.” Journal of Global History 6(3):481–504.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sackley, Nicole. 2013. “Village Models: Etawah, India, and the Making and Remaking of Development in the Early Cold War.” Diplomatic History 37(4):749–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Satya, Laxman D. 2004. Ecology, Colonialism and Cattle: Central India in the Nineteenth Century. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Schmalzer, Sigrid. 2016. Red Revolution, Green Revolution: Scientific Farming in Socialist China. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schultz, Theodore W. 1959. “Investment in Man: An Economist's View.” Social Science Review 33(2):109–17.Google Scholar
Schultz, Theodore W.. 1964. Transforming Traditional Agriculture. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Siegel, Benjamin Robert. 2018. Hungry Nation: Food, Famine, and the Making of Modern India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Mrinalini. 2006. Specters of Mother India: The Global Restructuring of an Empire. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinha, Subir. 2008. “Lineages of the Developmentalist State: Transnationality and Village India, 1900–1965.” Comparative Studies in Society and History 50(1):57–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sivaramakrishnan, K., and Agrawal, Arun, eds. 2003. Regional Modernities: The Cultural Politics of Development in India. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Smiles, Samuel. [1853] 1986. Self Help. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
Stross, Randall E. 1986. The Stubborn Earth: American Agriculturists on Chinese Soil, 1898–1937. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Subramanian, Ajantha. 2009. Shorelines: Space and Rights in South India. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Vaugh, Mason, Azariah, H. S., and Bhatnagar, S. C.. 1945. “A New Experimental Farm.” Allahabad Farmer 19 (March):51–54.Google Scholar
Viswanath, Rupa. 2014. The Pariah Problem: Caste, Religion, and the Social in Modern India. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Webster, John Crosby Brown. 1971. “The Christian Community and Change in North India: A History of the Punjab and North Indian Missions of the Presbyterian Church of the U.S.A., 1834–1914.” PhD diss., University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Webster, John Crosby Brown. 1987. “American Presbyterian Global Mission Policy: An Overview of 150 Years.” American Presbyterians 65(2):71–84.Google Scholar
White, Ben. 2013. “Software for Asia's Green Revolution: The Agricultural Development Council, Arthur Mosher and ‘Getting Agriculture Moving.’” Rockefeller Archive Center.Google Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 1997. “The Development of Professor Mahalanobis.” Economy and Society 26(3):434–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 1999. “British and Indian Ideas of ‘Development’: Decoding Political Conventions in the Late Colonial State.” Itinerario 23(3–4):162–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 2001. “Uses of Scientific Argument: The Case of ‘Development’ in India, c 1930–1950.” Economic and Political Weekly 36(39):3689–3702.Google Scholar
Zachariah, Benjamin. 2005. Developing India: An Intellectual and Social History, c. 1930–50. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar