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“Same Banana”: Hazing and Honor at the Philippine Military Academy

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 March 2010

Alfred W. McCoy
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On june 15, 1936, 120 fresh cadets assembled at Manila's Tutuban Station to board a train for the Philippine Military Academy (PMA), recently established in the mountain city of Baguio. At the end of the line, the cadets changed to Benguet Auto Line buses for the 4,000-foot climb up the zig-zag road to Baguio. As the buses pulled into the campus, some forty upperclassmen, all transfers from the superseded Constabulary Academy, were waiting to greet the new arrivals with a ritual called “hazing.” Even fifty years later, these cadets would recall their reception as traumatic (J. Mendoza 1986, 16).

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Articles
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The Journal of Asian Studies , Volume 54 , Issue 3 , August 1995 , pp. 689 - 726
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Copyright © The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 1995

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References

List of References

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From: Villamor, To: General MacArthur, NR 154, 11 October 1943, Philippine Project: Select Messages, Villamor—January-October 1943.Google Scholar
From: Sparks, To: General MacArthur, NR 170, 22 October 1943, Philippine Project: Select Messages, Villamor—January-October 1943.Google Scholar
Subject: Trained Personnel, To: Colonel C. Whitney, 26 July 1944, Headquarters 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion (Provisional), United States Army Forces in the Far East, Whitney, Personnel Files-Special, Personnel 5217th Recon. Bn. (Prov.)Google Scholar
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Bettelheim, Bruno 1954. Symbolic Wounds: Puberty Rites and the Envious Male. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
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Cadet Corps, Armed Forces of the Philippines. 1988. The Academy Scribe. Manila: The Academy Scribe Organization.Google Scholar
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Dornbusch, Sanford M. 1955. “The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution.” Social Forces 33, 4: 316–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia 1992. “It Takes Two.” In Let the Good Times Roll: Prostitution and the U.S. Military in Asia, eds. Sturdevant, Saundra Pollock and Stoltzfus, Brenda. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia 1989. “Beyond Steve Canyon and Rambo: Feminist Histories of Militarized Masculinity.” In The Militarization of the Western World, ed. Gillis, John R.. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Errington, Shelly 1990. “Recasting Sex, Gender, and Power: A Theoretical and Regional Overview.” In Power and Difference: Gender in Island Southeast Asia, eds. Atkinson, Jane Monnig and Errington, Shelly. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Finer, S. E. 1962. The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. London: Pall Mall Press.Google Scholar
First Class of the Philippine Military Academy. 1940. The Sword of 1940. Manila: The Sword.Google Scholar
Gelvezon, General Ramon (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 18 November.Google Scholar
Gibson, Janice 1991. “Training People to Inflict Pain: State Terror and Social Learning.” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 31, 2:72–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilmore, David 1990. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Ginsburgh, Colonel Robert N. 1964. “The Challenge to Military Professionalism.” Foreign Affairs 42, 2: 255–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, Antonio M. 1991. Philippine Military Academy: The Golden Sword Class of 1942. Manila: Class of 1942.Google Scholar
Herdt, Gilbert H. 1982. “Fetish and Fantasy in Sambia Initiation.” In Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, ed. Herdt, Gilbert H.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Hernandez, Carolina A. 1979. “The Extent of Civilian Control of the Military in the Philippines: 1946–1976.” Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1970. The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
James, D. Clayton. 1970. The Years of Mac Arthur: Volume I, 1880–1941. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Janowitz, Morris 1960. The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Jimenez, Colonel Franciso (ret.) 1995. Interview. North Hollywood, California: 5 January.Google Scholar
Jose, Ricardo Trota. 1992. The Philippine Army, 1935–1942. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
Kemp, Kenneth W. and Hudlin, Charles. 1992. “Civil Supremacy Over the Military: Its Nature and Limits.” Armed Forces & Society 19, 1: 7–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keesing, Roger M. 1982. Introduction to Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, ed. Herdt, Gilbert H.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lara, Captain Eugenio (ret.) 1994. Interview. Anaheim Hills, California, 2 January.Google Scholar
Lim, Vicente 1980. To Inspire and To Lead: The Letters of Vicente Lim, 1938–1942. Manila: privately printed.Google Scholar
Lovell, John P. 1964. “The Professional Socialization of the West Point Cadet.”In The New Military: Changing Patterns of Organization, ed. Janowitz, Morris. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Mangan, J. A. 1986. The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Maynard, Harold W. 1976. “A Comparison of Military Elite Role Perceptions in Indonesia and the Philippines.” Ph.D. diss., American University.Google Scholar
McCoy, Alfred W. 1989. “Quezon's Commonwealth: The Emergence of Philippine Authoritarianism.” In Philippine Colonial Democracy, ed. Paredes, Ruby R.. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
Meixsel, Richard Bruce. 1993. “An Army for Independence?: The American Roots of the Philippine Army.” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Jose 1985. “Experiences.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Jose M., ed. 1986. Batch '36 Golden Book. Manila: PMA Class '40 Association.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Colonel Jose (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 1 February.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Cadet R. and Evangelista, Cadet Q.. 1940. “P.M.A. Oh! Hail to Thee.” The Sword of 1940, 225. Manila: The Sword.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Reynaldo A. 1986. “The ‘Same Banana.’” In Batch ‘36 Golden Book, ed. Mendoza, Jose M., 113–17. Manila: PMA Class ’40 Association.Google Scholar
Mosse, George 1985. Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Mosse, George 1990. Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Navarro, Edmundo 1988. Beds of Nails. Manila: by the author.Google Scholar
Newman, Joel 1989. “An Exploratory Study of Elite Philippine Academy Cadets: Social Origins: Family Structure, Function, and Symbolism: Individual Psychodynamics: Occupational Selection: Intergenerational Mobility: and Early Career Success.” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, Eric A. 1977. Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Osmeña, Sergio. 1941. National Defense and Philippine Democracy: Address Delivered by Honorable Sergio Osmeña at the Commencement Exercises of the Philippine Military Academy, Baguio, March 15, 1940. Manila: Bureau of Printing.Google Scholar
Osias, , General Victor (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 18 February.Google Scholar
Pelayo, Colonel David (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 19 November.Google Scholar
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. 1990. Kudeta: The Challenge to Philippine Democracy. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Philippine Constabulary. 1911. Regulations for the Constabulary School, Baguio, Benguet, 1911. Manila: Bureau of Printing.Google Scholar
Rader, Benjamin G. 1987. “The Recapitulation Theory of Play: Motor Behaviour, Moral Reflexes and Manly Attitudes in Urban America, 1880–1920.” In Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940, eds. Mangan, J. A. and Walvin, James. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Republic of the Philippines. 1990. The Final Report of the Fact-Finding Commission (pursuant to R.A. No. 6832). Manila: Bookmark.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, Ernesto O. 1986. Commodore Alcaraz: First Victim of President Marcos. New York: Vantage Press.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Michael 1986. The Character Factory: Baden-Powell and the Origins of the Boy Scout Movement. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Selochan, Viberto 1990. “Professionalization and Politicization of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.” Ph.D. diss., Australian National University.Google Scholar
Shils, Edward A. and Janowitz, Morris. 1948. “Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II.” Public Opinion Quarterly 12: 280–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Dale O. 1988. Cradle of Valor: The Intimate Letters of a Plebe at West Point. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. 1991. “Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia.” In Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. di Leonardo, Micaela. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tiger, Lionel 1969. Men in Groups. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Tiglao, Rigoberto D. 1990. “Rebellion from the Barracks: The Military as Political Force.” In Kudeta: The Challenge to Philippine Democracy, Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1–23. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Tuazon, Colonel Hospicio (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 21 January.Google Scholar
Van Gennep, Arnold. 1960. The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Velasco, General Segundo (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 22 November.Google Scholar
Velasco, General Segundo. 1968. “Speech Delivered by General Segundo P. Velasco, Outgoing AFP Chief of Staff, During Turnover Ceremonies at Fort Aguinaldo on 28 May 1968.” Pasig, Rizal: Manila Times Files, Lopez Memorial Museum.Google Scholar
Warmsley, Gary M. 1972. “Contrasting Institutions of Air Force Socialization: Happenstance or Bellwether?” American Journal of Sociology 78, 2: 399–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Claude E. Jr. 1976. “Civilian Control of the Military: Myth and Reality.” In Civilian Control of the Military: Theory and Cases from Developing Countries, ed. Welch, Charles E. Jr.Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Welch, Claude E. Jr., and Smith, Arthur K.. 1974. Military Role and Rule: Perspectives on Civil Military Relations. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Wesbrook, Stephen D. 1983. “Sociopolitical Training in the Military: A Framework for Analysis.” In The Political Education of Soldiers, eds. Janowitz, Morris and Wesbrook, Stephen D.. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar
Commonwealth of the Philippines. 1937. Army Headquarters Bulletin 119, 14 Aug. Department of Manuscripts, Cornell University Library.Google Scholar
Commonwealth of the Philippines. 1938. Philippine Army. Philippine Military Academy. Bulletin of Information 1938. Manila: Bureau of Printing. RG-350, E-5, Box 1276, No. 28,003, U.S. National Archives.Google Scholar
MacArthur, Douglas. Record Group 16, Archives. Norfolk, Virginia.Google Scholar
Cabangbang, Bartolome, “General Information on Corregidor, Bataan, Concentration Camps and Guerillas,” undated, Philippine Project, Select Messages: Cabangbang, Bartolome C.Google Scholar
Cabangbang, Bartolome, “The Bombardment of Corregidor,” undated, Philippine Project, Select Messages: Cabangbang, Bartolome C.Google Scholar
From: Villamor, To: General MacArthur, NR 154, 11 October 1943, Philippine Project: Select Messages, Villamor—January-October 1943.Google Scholar
From: Sparks, To: General MacArthur, NR 170, 22 October 1943, Philippine Project: Select Messages, Villamor—January-October 1943.Google Scholar
Subject: Trained Personnel, To: Colonel C. Whitney, 26 July 1944, Headquarters 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion (Provisional), United States Army Forces in the Far East, Whitney, Personnel Files-Special, Personnel 5217th Recon. Bn. (Prov.)Google Scholar
Memo from S.J.C. to Chief of Staff, 6 August 1944, General Headquarters, Southwest Pacific Area, Philippine Project, Guerilla Records, General Files: Philippine Sub-Division, June-August 1944.Google Scholar
From: Cabangbang, To: General MacArthur, NR 624, 25 December 1944, Philippine Project, Messages: Cabangbang, September 1944-March-1945.Google Scholar
From: Cabangbang, To: General MacArthur, NR 831,17 January 1945, Philippine Project, Messages: Cabangbang, September 1944-March 1945.Google Scholar
CW to Chief of Staff, 28 August 1945, Philippine Subdivision—Administration, June-August 1945.Google Scholar
Capt.Cabangbang, B.C., General Order No. 1, 1 January 1945, Philippine Sub-Division-Administration, January 1945.Google Scholar
Quezon, Manuel. Papers. Message from Samuel Goldwyn to President Manuel Quezon, 23 August 1939, Series V, Box No. 110, File: General Correspondence 1939 August 13–31. Philippine National Library, Manila.Google Scholar
Alcaraz, Commodore Ramon A. (ret.) 1990. “Homily.” Address given at the Alumni Memorial Mass, Philippine Military Academy Chapel, Ft. Del Pilar, Baguio City, 17 February.Google Scholar
Alcaraz, Commodore Ramon A. (ret.) Personal communication, 25 July 1993.Google Scholar
Alcaraz, Commodore Ramon A. (ret.) Personal communication, 28 February 1994.Google Scholar
Alcaraz, Commodore Ramon A. (ret.) Undated. “The Saga of the Q-Boats.” Manuscript.Google Scholar
Baban, General Pedro (ret.) 1989. Interview. La Trinidad: 11 February.Google Scholar
Baclagon, Uldarico. 1968. They Served with Honor: Filipino Heroes of World War II. Quezon City: DM Press.Google Scholar
Barnett, Correlli 1967. “The Education of Military Elites.” Journal of Contemporary History 2, 3:15–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Ronald G. 1973. “Military Professional Socialization in a Developing Country.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan.Google Scholar
Benjamin, Jessica, and Rabinbach, Anson. 1989. Foreword to Male Bodies: Psychoanalyzing the White Terror. Vol. 2 of Male Fantasies, by Klaus Theweleit. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Berlin, Donald L. 1982. “Prelude to Martial Law: An Examination of Pre-1972 Philippine Civil-Military Relations.” Ph.D. diss., University of South Carolina.Google Scholar
Bettelheim, Bruno 1954. Symbolic Wounds: Puberty Rites and the Envious Male. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
Blanc-Szanton, Cristina. 1990. “Collision of Cultures: Historical Reformulations of Gender in the Lowland Visayas, Philippines.” In Power and Difference: Gender in Island Southeast Asia, eds. Atkinson, Jane Monnig and Errington, Shelly, 344–83. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Brod, Harry 1987. Introduction to The Making of Masculinities: The New Men's Studies, ed. Brod, Harry, 1–17. Boston: Allen & Unwin.Google Scholar
Caballero, Colonel Deogracias (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila, 15 October.Google Scholar
Cadet Corps, Armed Forces of the Philippines. 1988. The Academy Scribe. Manila: The Academy Scribe Organization.Google Scholar
Chapkis, Wendy 1988. “Sexuality and Militarism.” In Women and the Military System, ed. Isaksson, Eva. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Clastres, Pierre 1989. Society Against the State: Essays in Political Anthropology. New York: Zone Books.Google Scholar
Cohn, Carol 1987. “Sex and Death in the Rational World of Defense Intellectuals.” Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 12, 4: 687–718.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dornbusch, Sanford M. 1955. “The Military Academy as an Assimilating Institution.” Social Forces 33, 4: 316–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia 1992. “It Takes Two.” In Let the Good Times Roll: Prostitution and the U.S. Military in Asia, eds. Sturdevant, Saundra Pollock and Stoltzfus, Brenda. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar
Enloe, Cynthia 1989. “Beyond Steve Canyon and Rambo: Feminist Histories of Militarized Masculinity.” In The Militarization of the Western World, ed. Gillis, John R.. New Brunswick, N.J.: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar
Errington, Shelly 1990. “Recasting Sex, Gender, and Power: A Theoretical and Regional Overview.” In Power and Difference: Gender in Island Southeast Asia, eds. Atkinson, Jane Monnig and Errington, Shelly. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Finer, S. E. 1962. The Man on Horseback: The Role of the Military in Politics. London: Pall Mall Press.Google Scholar
First Class of the Philippine Military Academy. 1940. The Sword of 1940. Manila: The Sword.Google Scholar
Gelvezon, General Ramon (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 18 November.Google Scholar
Gibson, Janice 1991. “Training People to Inflict Pain: State Terror and Social Learning.” Journal of Humanistic Psychology 31, 2:72–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilmore, David 1990. Manhood in the Making: Cultural Concepts of Masculinity. New Haven: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Ginsburgh, Colonel Robert N. 1964. “The Challenge to Military Professionalism.” Foreign Affairs 42, 2: 255–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonzalez, Antonio M. 1991. Philippine Military Academy: The Golden Sword Class of 1942. Manila: Class of 1942.Google Scholar
Herdt, Gilbert H. 1982. “Fetish and Fantasy in Sambia Initiation.” In Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, ed. Herdt, Gilbert H.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Hernandez, Carolina A. 1979. “The Extent of Civilian Control of the Military in the Philippines: 1946–1976.” Ph.D. diss., State University of New York at Buffalo.Google Scholar
Huntington, Samuel P. 1970. The Soldier and the State: The Theory and Politics of Civil-Military Relations. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
James, D. Clayton. 1970. The Years of Mac Arthur: Volume I, 1880–1941. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Janowitz, Morris 1960. The Professional Soldier: A Social and Political Portrait. Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press.Google Scholar
Jimenez, Colonel Franciso (ret.) 1995. Interview. North Hollywood, California: 5 January.Google Scholar
Jose, Ricardo Trota. 1992. The Philippine Army, 1935–1942. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
Kemp, Kenneth W. and Hudlin, Charles. 1992. “Civil Supremacy Over the Military: Its Nature and Limits.” Armed Forces & Society 19, 1: 7–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Keesing, Roger M. 1982. Introduction to Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea, ed. Herdt, Gilbert H.. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Lara, Captain Eugenio (ret.) 1994. Interview. Anaheim Hills, California, 2 January.Google Scholar
Lim, Vicente 1980. To Inspire and To Lead: The Letters of Vicente Lim, 1938–1942. Manila: privately printed.Google Scholar
Lovell, John P. 1964. “The Professional Socialization of the West Point Cadet.”In The New Military: Changing Patterns of Organization, ed. Janowitz, Morris. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Mangan, J. A. 1986. The Games Ethic and Imperialism: Aspects of the Diffusion of an Ideal. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Maynard, Harold W. 1976. “A Comparison of Military Elite Role Perceptions in Indonesia and the Philippines.” Ph.D. diss., American University.Google Scholar
McCoy, Alfred W. 1989. “Quezon's Commonwealth: The Emergence of Philippine Authoritarianism.” In Philippine Colonial Democracy, ed. Paredes, Ruby R.. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.Google Scholar
Meixsel, Richard Bruce. 1993. “An Army for Independence?: The American Roots of the Philippine Army.” Ph.D. diss., Ohio State University.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Jose 1985. “Experiences.” Unpublished manuscript.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Jose M., ed. 1986. Batch '36 Golden Book. Manila: PMA Class '40 Association.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Colonel Jose (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 1 February.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Cadet R. and Evangelista, Cadet Q.. 1940. “P.M.A. Oh! Hail to Thee.” The Sword of 1940, 225. Manila: The Sword.Google Scholar
Mendoza, Reynaldo A. 1986. “The ‘Same Banana.’” In Batch ‘36 Golden Book, ed. Mendoza, Jose M., 113–17. Manila: PMA Class ’40 Association.Google Scholar
Mosse, George 1985. Nationalism and Sexuality: Middle-Class Morality and Sexual Norms in Modern Europe. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Mosse, George 1990. Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Navarro, Edmundo 1988. Beds of Nails. Manila: by the author.Google Scholar
Newman, Joel 1989. “An Exploratory Study of Elite Philippine Academy Cadets: Social Origins: Family Structure, Function, and Symbolism: Individual Psychodynamics: Occupational Selection: Intergenerational Mobility: and Early Career Success.” Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, Eric A. 1977. Soldiers in Politics: Military Coups and Governments. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Osmeña, Sergio. 1941. National Defense and Philippine Democracy: Address Delivered by Honorable Sergio Osmeña at the Commencement Exercises of the Philippine Military Academy, Baguio, March 15, 1940. Manila: Bureau of Printing.Google Scholar
Osias, , General Victor (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 18 February.Google Scholar
Pelayo, Colonel David (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 19 November.Google Scholar
Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. 1990. Kudeta: The Challenge to Philippine Democracy. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Philippine Constabulary. 1911. Regulations for the Constabulary School, Baguio, Benguet, 1911. Manila: Bureau of Printing.Google Scholar
Rader, Benjamin G. 1987. “The Recapitulation Theory of Play: Motor Behaviour, Moral Reflexes and Manly Attitudes in Urban America, 1880–1920.” In Manliness and Morality: Middle-Class Masculinity in Britain and America, 1800–1940, eds. Mangan, J. A. and Walvin, James. New York: St. Martin's Press.Google Scholar
Republic of the Philippines. 1990. The Final Report of the Fact-Finding Commission (pursuant to R.A. No. 6832). Manila: Bookmark.Google Scholar
Rodriguez, Ernesto O. 1986. Commodore Alcaraz: First Victim of President Marcos. New York: Vantage Press.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Michael 1986. The Character Factory: Baden-Powell and the Origins of the Boy Scout Movement. London: Collins.Google Scholar
Selochan, Viberto 1990. “Professionalization and Politicization of the Armed Forces of the Philippines.” Ph.D. diss., Australian National University.Google Scholar
Shils, Edward A. and Janowitz, Morris. 1948. “Cohesion and Disintegration in the Wehrmacht in World War II.” Public Opinion Quarterly 12: 280–315.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Dale O. 1988. Cradle of Valor: The Intimate Letters of a Plebe at West Point. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books.Google Scholar
Stoler, Ann Laura. 1991. “Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender, Race, and Morality in Colonial Asia.” In Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in the Postmodern Era, ed. di Leonardo, Micaela. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Tiger, Lionel 1969. Men in Groups. New York: Random House.Google Scholar
Tiglao, Rigoberto D. 1990. “Rebellion from the Barracks: The Military as Political Force.” In Kudeta: The Challenge to Philippine Democracy, Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism, 1–23. Manila: Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism.Google Scholar
Tuazon, Colonel Hospicio (ret.) 1989. Interview. Manila: 21 January.Google Scholar
Van Gennep, Arnold. 1960. The Rites of Passage. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Velasco, General Segundo (ret.) 1988. Interview. Manila: 22 November.Google Scholar
Velasco, General Segundo. 1968. “Speech Delivered by General Segundo P. Velasco, Outgoing AFP Chief of Staff, During Turnover Ceremonies at Fort Aguinaldo on 28 May 1968.” Pasig, Rizal: Manila Times Files, Lopez Memorial Museum.Google Scholar
Warmsley, Gary M. 1972. “Contrasting Institutions of Air Force Socialization: Happenstance or Bellwether?” American Journal of Sociology 78, 2: 399–417.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Welch, Claude E. Jr. 1976. “Civilian Control of the Military: Myth and Reality.” In Civilian Control of the Military: Theory and Cases from Developing Countries, ed. Welch, Charles E. Jr.Albany: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
Welch, Claude E. Jr., and Smith, Arthur K.. 1974. Military Role and Rule: Perspectives on Civil Military Relations. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury Press.Google Scholar
Wesbrook, Stephen D. 1983. “Sociopolitical Training in the Military: A Framework for Analysis.” In The Political Education of Soldiers, eds. Janowitz, Morris and Wesbrook, Stephen D.. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.Google Scholar