Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T15:12:42.942Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

EXPLORING SOCIOECONOMIC VULNERABILITY OF ANAEMIA AMONG WOMEN IN EASTERN INDIAN STATES

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  17 July 2009

SASWATA GHOSH
SASWATA GHOSH
Affiliation:
Institute of Development Studies Kolkata (IDSK), India
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Summary

The present study investigates the socioeconomic risk factors of anaemia among women belonging to eastern Indian states. An attempt has been made to find out differences in anaemia related to social class and place of residence, and age and marital status. It was hypothesized that rural women would have a higher prevalence of anaemia compared with their urban counterparts, particularly among the poorest social strata, and that ever-married women would be at elevated risk of anaemia compared with never-married women, particularly in the adolescent age group. Using data from National Family Health Survey-3, 2005–6, a nationally representative cross-sectional survey that provided information on anaemia level among 19,695 women of this region, the present study found that the prevalence of anaemia was high among all women cutting across social class, location and other attributes. In all 47.9% were mildly anaemic (10.0–11.9.9 g/dl), 16.1% were moderately anaemic (7.0–9.9 g/dl) and 1.6% were severely anaemic (<7.0 g/dl). Protective factors include frequent consumption of pulses, milk and milk products, fruits and fish, educational attainment, mass media exposure and high socioeconomic status. Urban poor women and adolescent ever-married women had very high odds of being anaemic. New programme strategies are needed, particularly those that improve iron storage and enhance the overall nutritional status of women throughout the life-cycle.

Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Biosocial Science , Volume 41 , Issue 6 , November 2009 , pp. 763 - 787
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Allen, L. H. (1997) Pregnancy and iron deficiency: unresolved issues. Nutrition Reviews 55, 4.Google ScholarPubMed
Allen, L. H. (2000) Anemia and iron deficiency: effect on pregnancy outcome. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71(5), Supplement, 1280–1284S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Banerjee, N. (1995) Household dynamics and women in a changing economy. In Krishnaraj, N., Sudarshan, R. & Shariff, A. (eds) Gender, Population, and Development. Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 245–263.Google Scholar
Bentley, M. E. & Griffiths, P. L. (2003) The burden of anemia among women in India. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 57, 52–60.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bicego, G. T. & Boerma, J. T. (1993) Maternal education and child survival: A comparative study of survey data from 17 countries. Social Science and Medicine 36(9), 1207–1227.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brooker, S., Hotez, P. J. & Bundy, D. A. P. (2008) Hookworm-related anemia among pregnant women: A systematic review. PLoS Neglected Tropical Disease 2(9), e291. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caldwell, J. C. (1979) Education as a factor in mortality decline: An examination of Nigerian data. Population Studies 33(2), 395–413.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1998) Recommendations to prevent and control iron deficiency in the United States. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 47(RR-3), 1–29.Google Scholar
Chakma, T., Rao, P. V. & Tiwary, R. S. (2000) Prevalence of anemia and worm infestation in tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh. Journal of the Indian Medical Association 98, 567–571.Google ScholarPubMed
Chandrasekhar, S. & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2007) Multidimensions of Urban Poverty: Evidence from India. Working Paper 2007–08. Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research, Mumbai, India.Google Scholar
Chatterjee, C. & Sheoran, G. (2007) Vulnerable Groups in India. Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied Themes (CEHAT), Mumbai, India.Google Scholar
Cleland, J. & van Ginneken, J. (1989) Maternal schooling and childhood mortality. In Hill, A. G. & Roberts, D. F. (eds) Health Interventions and Mortality Change in Developing Countries. Journal of Biosocial Science, Supplement 10, 13–34.Google Scholar
Cochrane, S. H., O'Hara, D. J. & Leslie, J. (1980) The Effects of Education on Health. World Bank Working Paper No. 405. Washington DC.Google Scholar
Da Vanzo, J. D. & Habicht, J. P. (1986) Infant mortality decline in Malaysia 1946–1975: The roles of change in variables and changes in the structure of relationships. Demography 23, 143–160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Das, D. K. & Biswas, R. (2005) Nutritional status of adolescent girls in a rural area of North 24 Parganas District, West Bengal. Indian Journal of Public Health 49, 18–21.Google Scholar
De Maeyer, E. M. (1989) Preventing and Controlling Iron Deficiency Anemia through Primary Health Care. A Guide of Health Administrators and Programme Managers. World Health Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Deaton, A. & Dreze, J. (2002) Poverty and inequality in India: A re-examination. Economic and Political Weekly 37(36), 3729–3748.Google Scholar
Dye, C. (2008) Health and urban living. Science 319(5864), 766–769.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gehring, H., Hornberger, C., Dibbelt, L., Rothisigkeit, A., Gerlach, K., Schumacher, J. & Schmucker, P. (2002) Accuracy of point-of-care-testing (POCT) for determining hemoglobin concentrations. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 46(8), 980–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ghosh, S. (2004) Socio-economic factors influencing utilization of maternal health care in Uttar Pradesh: An analysis of NFHS-2 data. Social Change 34(4), 61–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, S. (2005) Does economic inequality matter in cases of infectious childhood diseases? An analysis for India. Asia Pacific Population Journal 20(1), 37–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghosh, S. & Kulkarni, P. M. (2004) Does pattern of causes of death vary across socioeconomic classes within a population? An exploratory analysis for India. Genus LX(2), 55–81.Google Scholar
Gillespie, S. (1998) Major Issues in the Control of Iron Deficiency. The Micronutrient Initiative, UNICEF.Google Scholar
Govindaswamy, P. & Ramesh, B. M. (1997) Maternal Education and Utilization of Maternal and Child Health Services in India. National Family Health Survey Subject Report, No. 5. International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai and Macro International Inc, Calverton, MD, USA.Google Scholar
Griffiths, P. L. & Bentley, M. E. (2001) The nutrition transition is underway in India. Journal of Nutrition 131, 2692–2700.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gupta, K., Arnold, F., Kishor, S. & Parasuraman, S. (2007) Concern on prevalence of anemia in pregnant and lactating women in India. Indian Journal of Medical Research 125(1), 99–101.Google ScholarPubMed
Hallberg, L. & Hulthen, L. (2000) Prediction of dietary iron absorption: an algorithm for calculating absorption and bioavailability of dietary iron. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, 1147–1160.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hatekar, N. & Rode, S. (2003) Truth about hunger and disease in Mumbai: Malnourishment among slum children. Economic and Political Weekly 38(43), 4604–4610.Google Scholar
Hernell, O. & Lönnerdal, B. (2002) Iron status of infants fed low-iron formula: No effect of added bovine lactoferrin or nucleotides. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, 858–864.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Himanshu, (2007) Recent trends in poverty and inequality: Some preliminary results. Economic and Political Weekly 42(6), 497–508.Google Scholar
Hwalla, N., Adra, N. & Jackson, R. T. (2004) Iron deficiency is an important contributor to anemia among reproductive age women in Lebanon. Ecology of Food and Nutrition 43, 77–92.Google Scholar
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) & Macro International (2007) National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3), 2005–06. IIPS, Mumbai, India.Google Scholar
International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS) & ORC Macro (2000) National Family Health Survey (NFHS-2), 1998–99. IIPS, Mumbai, India.Google Scholar
Kanani, S. J. & Poojara, R. H. (2000) Supplementation of iron and folic acid enhances growth in adolescent Indian girls. Journal of Nutrition 130, 452–455S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaul, G. L. (1998) Fruit and vegetable production in India. NFI Bulletin 19, 5–8.Google Scholar
Laquian, A. A. (2004) Who are the poor and how are they being served in Asian cities? Paper presented at the Forum on Urban Infrastructure and Public Service Delivery for the Urban Poor, Regional Focus: Asia. India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, 24–25th July 2004.Google Scholar
McCormick, M. C. (1985) The contribution of low birth weight to infant mortality and childhood mortality. New England Journal of Medicine 31, 82–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madhiwalla, N. (2007) Healthcare in urban slums in India. National Medical Journal of India 20(3), 113–114.Google ScholarPubMed
Malhotra, P., Kumari, S., Kumar, R. & Verma, S. (2004) Prevalence of anemia in adult rural population of North India. Journal of Association of Physicians of India 52, 18–20.Google ScholarPubMed
Medina, A. L., Mundy, C., Kandulu, J., Chisuwo, L. & Bates, I. (2005) Evaluation and costs of different haemoglobin methods for use in district hospitals in Malawi. Journal of Clinical Pathology 58(1), 56–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Millman, N. & Kirchhoff, M. (1996) Relationship between serum ferritin, alcohol intake, and social status in 2235 Danish men and women. Annals of Hematology 72, 145–151.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) (2007) Consumer Expenditure Survey (2004–05). 61st Round, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Rajaratnam, J., Abel, R., Asokan, J. S. & Jonathan, P. (2000) Prevalence of anemia among adolescent girls of rural Tamil Nadu. Indian Pediatrics 27, 532–536.Google Scholar
Ramanakumar, A. V. (2004) Reviewing disease burden among rural Indian women. Online Journal of Health Allied Sciences 3(2), 1.Google Scholar
Registrar General of India (RGI) (2001) Census of India, Provisional Population Totals. Series 1, Paper 1, 2001. Registrar General, India, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Registrar General of India (RGI) (2008) Bulletin of Sample Registration System. October, 2008. Vital Statistics Division, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, New Delhi.Google Scholar
Sandhyarani, , Ghosh, S. & Shoran, M. (2007) Maternal healthcare seeking among tribal adolescent girls in Jharkhand. Economic and Political Weekly 42(48), 56–61.Google Scholar
Sen, A. & Himanshu, (2004a) Poverty and inequality in India – I. Economic and Political Weekly 39(38), 4247–4263.Google Scholar
Sen, A. & Himanshu, (2004b) Poverty and inequality in India – II. Widening disparities during the 1990s. Economic and Political Weekly 39(39), 4361–4375.Google Scholar
Seshadri, S. (1997) Nutritional anemia in south Asia. In Gillespie, S. (ed.) Malnutrition in South Asia: A Regional Profile. Regional Office for South Asia, UNICEF, Kathmandu.Google Scholar
Seshadri, S. (1998) A Database on Iron Deficiency Anemia (IDA) in India: Prevalence, Causes, Consequences and Strategies for Prevention. M.S. University, Baroda.Google Scholar
Shetty, P. S. (2002) Nutrition transition in India. Public Health Nutrition 5(1A), 175–182.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stata Corporation (2005) Stata Release 9. 4905 Lakeway Drive, College Station, TX 77845, USA.Google Scholar
Steer, P. J. (2000) Maternal hemoglobin concentration and birth weight. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, Supplement, 1285–1287S.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoltzfus, R. J. (1997) Rethinking anemia surveillance. Lancet 349, 1764–1766.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoltzfus, R. J., Dreyfuss, M. L., Chwaya, H. M. & Albonico, M. (1997) Hookworm control as a strategy to prevent iron deficiency. Nutrition Review 55, 223–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stoltzfus, R. J., Mullany, L. & Black, R. E. (2003) Iron deficiency anemia. In Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease due to Selected Major Risk Factors. World Health Organization, Geneva.Google Scholar
Svanberg, U., Lorri, W. & Sandberg, A-S. (1993) Lactic fermentation of non tannin and high tannin cereals: effect on in vitro iron availability and phytate hydrolysis. Journal of Food Science 58, 408–412.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Svanberg, U. & Sandberg, A-S. (1988) Improved iron availability in weaning foods through the use of germination and fermentation. In Alnwick, D., Moses, S. & Schmidt, O. G. (eds) Proceedings of a Workshop in Nairobi on Improving Young Child Feeding in Eastern and Southern Africa – Household-Level Food Technology. IDRC, Ottawa, pp. 366–380.Google Scholar
Tatala, S., Svanberg, U. & Mduma, B. (1998) Low dietary iron availability is a major cause of anemia: A nutrition survey in the Lindi District of Tanzania. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 68, 171–178.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Torre, M., Rodriguez, A. & Saura-Calixto, F. (1991) Effects of dietary fiber and phytic acid on mineral bioavailability. Critical Review of Food Science and Nutrition 1, 1–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
United Nations (1985) Socio-economic Differentials in Child Mortality in Developing Countries. United Nations, New York.Google Scholar
Verma, M., Chhatwal, J. & Kaur, G. (1998) Prevalence of anemia among urban school children of Punjab. Indian Pediatrics 35(12), 1181–1186.Google ScholarPubMed
World Bank (1993) Invest in Health. World Development Report. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 195–324.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1991) Hookworm Infection and Anemia: Approaches to Prevention and Control. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (1992) The Prevalence of Anemia in Women: a Tabulation of Available Information. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar
World Health Organization (2008) Worldwide prevalence of anemia 1993–2005. In WHO Global Database on Anemia. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.Google Scholar