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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 10 January 2014
Three points by way of introduction. The first concerns the definition and delineation of the subject. Because kingship is but one ill-defined kingdom in the shifting intellectual heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon scholarship, I have been rigorous almost to the point of ruthlessness about excluding topics just at or beyond our boundaries. Not only scholarly contributions and scholars but also whole fields and subfields of historical inquiry have been precluded from consideration: the list of neglected, ignored, and relegated topics is very long indeed. Then I come to the question of whether this survey has any hopes for originality. What dreams I might have harbored for a new clarion call were quickly dashed when, early in my preparation of this article, I came on Eric John's comment that “more books have been written about Anglo-Saxon kingship than about Anglo-Saxon kings.” Once I got my torch alight I quickly realized how many footsteps already covered the path. And last, this article in some sense is offered as a memorial to Dorothy Whitelock, our greatest modern Anglo-Saxonist after Stenton. Though she did not live to complete her study of Alfred the Great, we have been assured that it will soon see the light of day. The frequency with which Whitelock's name appears in the bibliography gives some idea of her versatility and her relentless intellectual curiosity. To the study of kingship alone her first postwar contribution appears in the 1954 listings; her last—the reedition of her magisterial English Historical Documents, volume 1—in 1979.
The long postwar generation of Anglo-Saxon scholarship, of which we now must be standing at the far chronological end, begins with the publication of Frank Merry Stenton's Anglo-Saxon England in 1943. Stenton was sixty-three when his great book appeared. Rarely has a large synthetic treatment simultaneously presented the state of the existing question and set the agenda for the next thirty or forty years.
1 The following topics, in no particular order, have been excluded from consideration: kinship, Celtic kingship, popular biography (including movies), historical fiction—worthy of its own study—and “medievalism,” work on the calendar and chronology, numismatics, the controversy over the introduction of feudalism, constitutional and institutional history, Beowulf studies, archaeology, charter research and editing, foreign relations, work on the Chronicle and other primary sources, law and the law codes, the royal role in the ecclesiastical revival of the tenth and eleventh centuries, Scandinavian history and that of the northern Viking kingdoms of the British Isles, administrative history, and events leading up to and the causes of the Norman Conquest.
2 John, Eric, “Edward the Confessor and the Norman Conquest,” English Historical Review 94 (1979): 241CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
3 Old English Newsletter 16, no. 1 (Fall 1982): 14–17Google Scholar: a remembrance by D. B. Loomis and the Cambridge memorial address delivered by Peter Clemoes. Simon Keynes is doing the editorial work needed to bring Whitelock's Alfred volume to fruition.
4 Stenton, Frank M., Anglo-Saxon England (Oxford, 1943)Google Scholar. See the preface to the 3d ed., edited in 1971 by Doris M. Stenton, pp. v–vii, for the new material.
5 Morris, William A., reviewing Stenton in American Historical Review 50 (1944–1945): 108–10, 108CrossRefGoogle Scholar: “The writer has fulfilled brilliantly, in both his own original work and the interpretations and his use of recent scholarship, the expectations which have long centered on this volume.”
6 For some brief general surveys of the state of Anglo-Saxon scholarship, Whitelock, Dorothy, Changing Currents in Anglo-Saxon Studies (Cambridge, 1958)Google Scholar. This was her inaugural lecture, now reprinted in History, Law and Literature in 10th-11th Century England (London, 1981)Google Scholar; Loyn, H. R., “Anglo-Saxon England: Reflections and Insights,” History 64 (1979): 171–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This was Loyn's University of London inaugural lecture. For a brief survey of some recent work, Nelson, Janet L., “Bibliography: Anglo-Saxon England, 1970–81,” Medieval Prosopography 3, no. 1 (1982): 109–12Google Scholar; for a discussion of how Stenton, as a role model, led us away from biographical approaches, Hollister, C. Warren, “Elite Prosopography in Saxon and Norman England,” Medieval Prosopography 2, no. 2 (1981): 11–20Google Scholar.
7 For Ernst Kantorowicz, the most valuable works are The King's Two Bodies: A Study in Mediaeval Political Theology (Princeton, N.J., 1957)Google Scholar, and Laudes Regiae: A Study in Liturgical Acclamations and Mediaeval Ruler Worship (Berkeley, 1946)Google Scholar; for Douglas, David C., William the Conqueror (London, 1964)Google Scholar, and the Douglas, bibliography, in Time and the Hour (London, 1977), pp. 235–43Google ScholarPubMed.
8 The editorial material in Alfred the Great, trans. and intro. by Keynes, Simon and Lapidge, Michael (Harmondsworth, 1983), pp. 48–58, 223–75Google Scholar, is invaluable for a current statement of the problems and historiographical consensus.
9 Henningham, Eleanor K., “The Genuineness of the Vita Æduuardi Regis,” Speculum 21 (1946): 419–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “The Literary Unity, the Date, and the Purpose of The Lady Edith's Book: The Life of King Edward Who Rests at Westminster,” Albion 7 (1975): 24–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schütt, Marie, “The Literary Form of Asser's Vita Alfredi,” English Historical Review 72 (1957): 209–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John, Eric, “The Encomium Emmae Reginae: A Riddle and a Solution,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library 63 (1980): 58–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
10 Galbraith, Vivian H., “Who Wrote Asser's Life of Alfred” in An Introduction to the Study of History (London, 1964)Google Scholar. In response, Whitelock, Dorothy, “Recent Work on Asser's Life of Alfred,” in Asser's Life of King Alfred (Oxford, 1958), pp. cxxii–xliiGoogle Scholar, and The Genuine Asser (Reading, 1968)Google Scholar. The issue is briefly reviewed by Keynes, and Lapidge, in Alfred the Great, pp. 50–51Google Scholar, and the editors conclude by saying: “The case against the authenticity of Asser's Life of King Alfred does not stand up to scrutiny, and any lingering doubts should be laid peacefully to rest.”
11 As quoted by Garmonsway, George N., ed., The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (London, 1953), p. xxxiiiGoogle Scholar.
12 For some recent scholarly contributions, with notes to steer the reader to the whole of the current discussion: Bately, Janet, “The Compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, 60 BC to AD 890: Vocabulary as Evidence,” Proceedings of the British Academy 46 (1978): 93–129Google Scholar; Hart, Cyril, “The B-Text of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982): 241–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “The Early Section of the Worcester Chronicle,” Journal of Medieval History 9 (1983): 251–83CrossRefGoogle Scholar. A new collaborative edition, under the direction of David Dumville and Simon Keynes, is under way, and so far 1 vol. has appeared: Taylor, Simon, ed., The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: Ms. B (Cambridge, 1983)Google Scholar.
13 For the E text, there is also Rositzke, Harry A., ed. and trans., The Peterborough Chronicle (New York, 1951)Google Scholar.
14 Körner, Sten, The Battle of Hastings, England, and Europe, 1035–1066 (Lund, 1964), pp. 47–74Google Scholar; Rosenthal, Joel T., “Edward the Confessor and Robert the Pious: Eleventh Century Kingship and Biography,” Mediaeval Studies 33 (1971): 7–20CrossRefGoogle Scholar; the most aggressive treatment of the sources as propaganda is Davis, R. H. C., “Alfred the Great, Propaganda and Truth,” History 56 (1971): 169–82CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
15 Colgrave, Bertram and Mynors, R. A. B., eds. and trans., Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Oxford, 1969)Google Scholar; for the “Leicester School,” a bibliography can be found in a recent volume, Gelling, Margaret, ed., The Early Charters of the Thames Valley (Leicester, 1978)Google Scholar; for the British Academy series of charter editions, 2 vols. have now appeared: Campbell, Alistair, ed., The Charters of Rochester (London, 1973)Google Scholar; and Sayer, Peter, ed., The Charters of Burton Abbey (London, 1979)Google Scholar.
16 Alexander, James W., “Medieval Biography: Clio lo vult,” Historian 35 (1973): 355CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
17 Duckett, Eleanor S., Alfred the Great (Chicago, 1956), p. viiGoogle Scholar. Between Duckett, 's volume and Keynes, and Lapidge's, Alfred the Great (1983)Google Scholar, there was surprisingly little work: hints of how much could be done were offered by Nelson, Janet L., “The Problem of King Alfred's Royal Anointing,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 18 (1967): 145–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Davis.
18 Altschul, Michael, review of Edward the Confessor, by Barlow, Frank, Speculum 47 (1972): 508–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
19 For Ethelread II, , Ethelred the Unready: Papers from the Millenary Conference, ed. Hill, David, British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 59 (Oxford, 1978)Google Scholar: the papers of Simon Keynes, “The Declining Reputation of King Æthelred the Unready,“ Pauline Stafford, “The Reign of Æthelred II: A Study in the Limitations on Royal Policy and Action,” and Patrick Wormald, “æthelred the Lawmaker,” are most relevant to our inquiry. The major study is now Keynes, Simon, The Diplomas of King Æthelred “The Unready” (978–1016): A Study in Their Uses as Historical Evidence (Cambridge, 1980)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. This book covers a much broader canvas than its rarified title might indicate.
20 There have been two quick glimpses at Athelstan: Loomis, Laura H., “The Holy Relics of Charlemagne and King Athelstan: The Lances of Longinus and St. Paulicius,” Speculum 25 (1950): 437–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lapidge, Michael, “Some Latin Poems as Evidence for the Reign of Athelstan, “ Anglo-Saxon England 9 (1981): 51–98Google Scholar. Otherwise, almost all the biographical work has centered on Alfred, Ethelred II, Edward the Confessor, and various martyr-kings.
21 For Harold, Loyn, Harold R., Harold, Son of Godwin (Hastings, 1966)Google Scholar, a part of the 900th anniversary celebration; for Cnut Barlow, Frank, “Two Notes: Cnut's Second Pilgrimage and Queen Emma's Disgrace in 1043,” English Historical Review 73 (1958): 649–56CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Garmonsway, George N., Canute and His Empire (London, 1964)Google Scholar. The only full-length study remains Larson, Laurence M., Canute the Great, 995–1035, and the Rise of Danish Imperialism during the Viking Age (New York and London, 1912)Google Scholar. Despite its lively title, we must remember that the book was published as part of the Heroes of the Nations series, a paean to the great white fathers. Recent work on Cnut has largely focused on the role of Wulfstan and political theory and ecclesiology: Stafford, Pauline, ”The Laws of Cnut and the History of Anglo-Saxon Royal Promises,” Anglo-Saxon England 10 (1982): 173–90Google Scholar; Kennedy, A. G., “Cnut's Law Code of 1018,” Anglo-Saxon England 10 (1982): 57–81Google Scholar.
22 For queens treated biographically, Campbell, Miles, “Queen Emma and Aelfgifu of Northampton: Canute the Great's Women,” Mediaeval Scandinavia 4 (1971): 66–79Google Scholar, and “Emma, reine d'Angleterre, mère dènaturèe ou femme vindicative?” Annales de Normandie 23 (1973): 99–114CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Cutler, Kenneth E., “Edith, Queen of England, 1045–1066,” Mediaeval Studies 35 (1973): 222–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hart, Cyril, “Two Queens of England,” Ampleforth Journal 82 (1977): 10–15, 54Google Scholar (treating Eadgifu, third wife of Edward the Elder, and Elfthryth, second wife of Edgar); and, the most comprehensive and thematic, Stafford, Pauline, Queens, Concubines, and Dowagers: The King's Wife in the Early Middle Ages (Athens, Ga., 1983)Google Scholar.
23 Tacitus, , The Agricola and the Germania, trans. Mattingly, Harold (Harmondsworth, 1948), chap. 7Google Scholar.
24 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, E text, A.D. 597 (as quoted from Whitelock, Dorothy, English Historical Documents, vol. 1 [London, 1955], p. 147)Google Scholar.
25 Sisam, Kenneth, “Anglo-Saxon Royal Genealogies,” Proceedings of the British Academy 29 (1953): 287–348Google Scholar. For more recent interest in this material, see Dumville, David, “The Anglian Collection of Royal Genealogies and Regnal Lists,” Anglo-Saxon England 5 (1977): 23–50Google Scholar, and “Kingship, Genealogies, and Regnal Lists,” in Early Medieval Kingship, ed. Sawyer, Peter H. and Wood, Ian N. (Leeds, 1977)Google Scholar; for a different orientation, an intriguing article by Moisl, Hermann, “Anglo-Saxon Royal Genealogies and Germanic Oral Tradition,” Journal of Medieval History 1 (1981): 215–45CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
26 Stenton, Frank M., “The East Anglian Kings of the Seventh Century,” in The Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Bruce Dickins, ed. Clemoes, Peter (London, 1959)Google Scholar; Kirby, David P., “Problems of Early West Saxon History,” English Historical Review 80 (1965): 10–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and “Northumberland in the Time of Wilfrid,” in St. Wilfrid at Hexham, ed. Kirby, David P. (Newcastle, 1974)Google Scholar; John, Eric, Orbis Britanniae and Other Studies (Leicester, 1966), passimGoogle Scholar; Rosenthal, Joel T., “The Swinging Pendulum and the Turning Wheel: The Anglo-Saxon State before Alfred,” in Acta VI: The Early Middle Ages (1979), pp. 95–115Google Scholar.
27 Darlington, Reginald R., The Norman Conquest (London, 1963)Google Scholar.
28 Campbell, James, “Observations on English Government from the Tenth to the Twelfth Century,“ Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th ser., 25 (1975): 39–54, esp. 43CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
29 Peter H. Sawyer, “Kings and Merchants,” in Sawyer and Wood, eds.
30 Stafford, Pauline, “Sons and Mothers: Family Politics in the Early Middle Ages,“ in Medieval Women: Studies in Church History, Subsidia I (Oxford, 1978)Google Scholar.
31 On the Anglo-Saxon writ and administrative history, Harmer, Florence E., Anglo-Saxon Writs (Manchester, 1952)Google Scholar; the work of Pierre Chaplais, most accessible in his Medieval Diplomacy and Administration (London, 1981)Google Scholar, and in Prisca Munimenta: Studies in Archival and Administrative History Presented to Dr. A. E. J. Hollaender, ed. Ranger, Felicity (London, 1973)Google Scholar; also Simon Keynes, The Diplomas of King Æthelred ”The Unready” (n. 19 above), chaps. 1, 2, app. 1. I wish to thank David Nicholas for questions he raised regarding the administrative and economic underpinnings of kingship: if I fail to deal with these as they deserve, it is because they lead too far from my principal topic.
32 For a recent examination of the introduction-of-feudalism issue, see Gillingham, John, “The Introduction of Knight Service into England,“ Proceedings of the Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies, IV, 1981, ed. Brown, R. Allen (Woodbridge, Suffolk, 1982)Google Scholar.
33 Hooke, Samuel, ed., Myth, Ritual and Kingship: Essays on the Theory and Practice of Kingship in the Ancient Near East and in Israel (Oxford, 1958)Google Scholar, and The Siege Perilous (London, 1956)Google Scholar; Frankfort, Henry, Kingship and the Gods: A Study in Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society and Nature (Chicago, 1948)Google Scholar; Evans-Pritchard, E. E., The Divine Kingship of the Shilluk of the Nilotic Sudan (Cambridge, 1948)Google Scholar; Richards, Audrey, Keeping the King Divine, Proceedings of the Royal Anthropological Institute (London, 1969)Google Scholar; Young, Michael W., “The Divine Kingship of the Jukun: A Reevaluation of the Theories,” Africa 36 (1966): 135–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Arens, W., “The Divine Kingship of the Shilluk: A Contemporary Evaluation,” Ethnos 3–4 (1979): 167–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
34 McTurk, R. W., “Sacred Kingship in Ancient Scandinavia: A Review of Some Recent Writings,” Saga Book of the Viking Society 19 (1974–1977): 139–69Google Scholar.
35 For reviews of Wallace Hadrill, see Beiler, L., English Historical Review 87 (1972): 816–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Nelson, Janet L., Journal of Ecclesiastical History 23 (1972): 271–72CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Loyn, H. R., History 57 (1972): 254–55Google Scholar. John M. Wallace Hadrill has offered a more diversified view of kings and kingship, as in his The Long-haired Kings (London, 1962)Google Scholar, and some of the papers collected in his Early Medieval History (Oxford, 1975)Google Scholar.
36 On early functions and roles, Stancliffe, Clare E., “Kings and Conversion: Some Comparisons between the Roman Mission to England and Patrick's to Ireland,“ Frühmittelalterliche Studien 14 (1980): 59–94Google Scholar. For the terminology of kings, nobles, and office holding, see Campbell, James, Bede's “Reges” and “Principes” (Jarrow, 1979)Google Scholar; Yorke, Barbara A. E., “The Vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon Overlordship,” in Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History, II, ed. Brown, David, Campbell, James, and Hawkes, Sonia Chadwick, British Archaeological Reports, British Series, 92 (Oxford, 1981)Google Scholar.
37 The most trenchant work has been from Janet L. Nelson, who has almost made this into “her” topic: “The Problem of King Alfred's Royal Anointing” (n. 17 above), ”National Synods, Kingship as Office, and Royal Anointing,” Studies in Church History 7 (1971): 41–59CrossRefGoogle Scholar, “Inauguration Rituals,” in Sawyer and Wood, eds. (n. 25 above), and ”The Earliest Surviving Royal Ordo: Some Liturgical and Historical Aspects,” in Authority and Power: Studies in Medieval Law and Government Presented to Walter Ullmann on His Seventieth Birthday, ed. Tierney, Brian and Linehan, Peter (Cambridge, 1980)Google Scholar. Nelson, 's “Royal Saints and Early Medieval Kingship” (Studies in Church History 10 [1973]: 39–44)CrossRefGoogle Scholar touches on England and the Continent. Also, Bouman, C. A., Sacring and Crowning: The Development of the Latin Ritual for the Anointing and Coronation of an Emperor before the Eleventh Century (Utrecht, 1957), pp. 9–27Google Scholar; Richardson, Henry G. and Sayles, George O., The Governance of Mediaeval England from Conquest to Magna Carta (Edinburgh, 1963), pp. 397–412Google Scholar; John, Eric, “King Edgar's Coronation,” in Orbis Britanniae and Other Studies (n. 26 above), pp. 276–89Google Scholar; Schramm, Percy Ernst, Kaiser Könige und Papste (Stuttgart, 1968), pp. 169–248Google Scholar; and, most recently, and in some disagreement with Nelson, Jones, Adrienne, “The Significance of the Regal Consecration of Edgar in 973,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 33 (1982): 375–90Google Scholar.
38 Deshman, Robert, “Christus rex et magi reges: Kingship and Christology in Ottoman and Anglo-Saxon Art,“ Frühmittelalterliche Studien 10 (1976): 376–405Google Scholar.
39 On dead but holy kings, see Whitelock, Dorothy, “Fact and Fiction in the Legend of St. Edmund,“ Proceedings of the Suffolk Institute of Archaeology 31 (1969): 217–33Google Scholar; Houghton, Bryan, St. Edmund, King and Martyr (Lavenham, 1970)Google Scholar; Fell, Christine, ed., Edward King and Martyr (Leeds, 1971)Google Scholar; Christine Fell, “Eadward King and Martyr and the Anglo-Saxon Hagiographic Tradition,” in Hill, ed. (n. 19 above); Folz, Robert, ”Naissance et manifestation d'un culte royal: Saint Edmon, roi d'Est-Anglia,” in Geschichtsschreibung und geistiges Leben im Mittelalter, ed. Hanck, K. and Mordek, H. (Cologne, 1978)Google Scholar, and “Saint Oswald, roi de Northumbrie: Etude d'hagiographie royale,“ Analecta Bollandiana 98 (1980): 49–74CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rollason, D. W., “The Cult of Murdered Royal Saints in Anglo-Saxon England,“ Anglo-Saxon England 10 (1982): 1–23Google Scholar.
40 For posthumous and post-Conquest legends, Oleson, Tryggvi J., “Edward the Confessor in History,“ Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, ser. 3, 53, no. 2 (1959): 27–35Google Scholar; Scholz, Bernhard W., “The Canonization of Edward the Confessor,” Speculum 36 (1961): 38–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fell (n. 39 above).
41 For Hector Chadwick, Hector Munro, The Origin of the English Nation (Cambridge, 1907)Google Scholar, and Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions (1905; reprint, New York, 1963)Google Scholar; for Philpotts, Bertha S., Kindred and Clan in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1913)Google Scholar.
42 Binchey, D. A., Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Kingship (Oxford, 1970)Google Scholar. This is the definitive short discussion of Celtic kingship—the O'Donnell Lecture for 1967–68. For Scotland, see Anderson, Margorie O., Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland (Edinburgh, 1973)Google Scholar.
43 There is no easy dip into the vast numismatic bibliography. For some pertinent contributions, still holding their own over the years, see Dolley, R. H. M., ed., Anglo-Saxon Coins: Studies Presented to F. M. Stenton on the Occasion of His 80th Birthday, 17 May, 1960 (London, 1961)Google Scholar.
44 Archaeology, like numismatics, has become too vast and too disparate to summarize. For a suggestive essay, Hadrill, John M. Wallace, “The Graves of Kings: An Historical Note on Some Archaeological Evidence,” in Early Medieval History (Oxford, 1975)Google Scholar. For a dig that touches on kingship, Taylor, Brian Hope, Yeavering—an Anglo-British Centre of Early Northumbria (London, 1977)Google Scholar.
45 For the Stentons on women: Stenton, Frank M., “The Historical Bearing of Place-Name Studies: The Place of Women in Anglo-Saxon Society,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 4th ser., 25 (1943): 1–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar (reprinted in Preparatory to Anglo-Saxon England, ed. Stenton, Doris M. [Oxford, 1970], pp. 314–24)Google Scholar; Stenton, Doris M., The English Woman in History (London, 1957Google Scholar), chap. 1.
46 Recent work, reflecting the lead of the sources, has looked at the law and women's legal position: Meyer, Marc A., “Land Charters and the Legal Position of Anglo-Saxon Women,” in The Women of England from Anglo-Saxon Times to the Present: Interpretive Bibliographical Essays, ed. Kanner, Barbara (Hamden, Conn., 1979)Google Scholar; Klinck, Anne L., “Anglo-Saxon Women and the Law,“ Journal of Medieval History 8 (1982): 107–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
47 Ullmann, Walter, Principles of Government and Politics in the Middle Ages (London, 1961)Google Scholar; many of Ullmann's shorter papers on the early medieval period are now collected in The Church and the Law in the Earlier Middle Ages (London, 1975)Google Scholar. For some works that deal with the link between law and kingship, Loomis, Dorothy Bethurum, ”Regnum and Sacerdotium in the Early Eleventh Century,” in England before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock, ed. Clemoes, Peter and Hughes, Kathleen (Cambridge, 1971)Google Scholar; Stafford, “The Laws of Cnut and the History of Anglo-Saxon Royal Promises” (n. 21 above).
48 Oleson, Tryggvi J., The Witenagemot in the Reign of Edward the Confessor (Oxford, 1955)Google Scholar; Brooke, Christopher N. L., Saxon and Norman Kings (London, 1963)Google Scholar; Richardson and Sayles (n. 37 above); Maier, I. G., “The Bretwalda Kings,” Melbourne Historical Journal 6 (1966): 53–61Google Scholar; Campbell, “Observations on English Government from the Tenth to the Twelfth Century” (n. 28 above); Dumville, David, “The Aetheling: A Study in Anglo-Saxon Constitutional History,” Anglo-Saxon England 8 (1979): 1–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar.