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War of the British Worlds: The Anglo-Argentines and the Falklands

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 January 2016

Ezequiel Mercau
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Abstract

The 1982 Falklands War was shrouded in symbolism, bringing to the fore divergent conceptions of Britishness, kinship, and belonging. This article casts light on the persistent purchase of the idea of Greater Britain long after the end of empire, addressing a case that would normally be deemed outside its spatial and temporal boundaries. By highlighting the inherent contradictions of this transnational bond, the South Atlantic conflict had a profound effect on an underexposed British community with a lingering attachment to a “British world”: the Anglo-Argentines. As they found themselves wedged between two irreconcilable identities, divisions threatened to derail this already enfeebled grouping. Yet leaders of the community, presuming a common Britishness with the Falkland Islanders and Britons in the United Kingdom, sought to intervene in the conflict by reaching out to both. That their efforts were met with indifference, and sometimes scorn, only underlines how contingent and frail the idea of Greater Britain was by 1982. Yet this article also reveals how wide ranging the consequences of the crisis of Greater Britain were, and how its global reach was acutely put to the test by pitting different “British worlds” against each other.

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Articles
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Journal of British Studies , Volume 55 , Issue 1 , January 2016 , pp. 145 - 168
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Copyright © The North American Conference on British Studies 2016 

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References

1 “The Mecca of Society: Harrods,” Buenos Aires Herald, 29 May 1914; Andrew Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony: A History of the English-Speaking Communities in Argentina, rev. ed. (Buenos Aires, 1999), 267.

2 Advertisements, Standard, 2 April 1914.

3 Advertisement, La Nación, 4 April 1982.

4 “Asociación de Cultura Británica es Argentina,” Crónica, 10 April 1982; Advertisement, Crónica, 17 May 1982.

5 Advertisement, Crónica, 6 May 1982.

6 The terms “Anglo Argentine community” and “British community” do not adequately describe the community in demographic terms. A good analysis of the demographic makeup of the community can be found in Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony. The “Falklands/Malvinas” dichotomy is politically charged; I will use the terms interchangeably according to local emphasis.

7 For example, Lawrence Freedman, The Official History of the Falklands Campaign, vol. 2, War and Diplomacy, 2nd ed. (London, 2007), 92–94; Klaus Dodds, Pink Ice: Britain and the South Atlantic Empire (London, 2002), 164–82.

8 Charles Dilke coined the term “Greater Britain” in his 1868 travelogue, and it was later adopted and developed by John Robert Seeley and James Anthony Froude. See Charles Wentworth Dilke, Greater Britain: A Record of Travel in English-Speaking Countries During 1866 and 1867, 2 vols. (London, 1868); John Robert Seeley, The Expansion of England: Two Courses of Lectures (1883; repr., New York, 2005); James Anthony Froude, Oceana or England and Her Colonies (1886; repr., London, 1912).

9 For example, see José E. Igartua, The Other Quiet Revolution: National Identities in English Canada, 1945–71 (Vancouver, 2006); Lambert, John, “An Unknown People: Reconstructing British South African Identity,” Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 37, no. 4 (December 2009): 599–617CrossRefGoogle Scholar; James Curran and Stuart Ward, The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire (Carlton, 2010); Nielsen, Jimmi Østergaard and Ward, Stuart, “‘Cramped and Restricted at Home?’ Scottish Nationalism at Empire's End,” Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 25 (December 2015): 159–85CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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12 Belich, Replenishing the Earth, 179–80, 537.

13 See John Darwin, “Orphans of Empire,” in Settlers and Expatriates: Britons over the Seas, ed. Robert A. Bickers (Oxford, 2010), 329–46, at 343–45.

14 For analyses of “embattled Britons” in Rhodesia since the Unilateral Declaration of Independence and in Ulster during the Troubles, see Donal Lowry, “Ulster Resistance and Loyalist Rebellion in the Empire,” in “An Irish Empire”? Aspects of Ireland and the British Empire, ed. Keith Jeffery (Manchester, 1996), 191–214; Donal Lowry, “Rhodesia 1890–1980,” in Bickers, ed., Settlers and Expatriates, 112–49; Schwarz, White Man's World; Murphy, Philip, “‘An Intricate and Distasteful Subject’: British Planning for the Use of Force against the European Settlers of Central Africa, 1952–65,” English Historical Review 121, no. 492 (June 2006): 746–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Watts, Carl, “Killing Kith and Kin: The Viability of British Military Intervention in Rhodesia, 1964–5,” Twentieth Century British History 16, no. 4 (December 2005): 382–415CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For Kenyan settlers, the Emergency, and Mau Mau, see Joanna Lewis, “‘Daddy Wouldn't Buy Me a Mau Mau’: The British Popular Press and the Demoralization of Empire,” in Mau Mau & Nationhood: Arms, Authority and Narration, ed. E. S. Atieno Odhiambo and John Lonsdale (Oxford, 2003), 227–50.

15 H. S. Ferns, “Argentina: Part of an Informal Empire?,” in The Land That England Lost: Argentina and Britain, a Special Relationship, ed. Alastair Hennessy and John King (London, 1992), 49–61; Thompson, Andrew, “Informal Empire? An Exploration in the History of Anglo-Argentine Relations, 1810–1914,” Journal of Latin American Studies 24, no. 2 (May 1992): 419–36CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Hopkins, A. G., “Informal Empire in Argentina: An Alternative View,” Journal of Latin American Studies 26, no. 2 (May 1994): 469–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Knight, Alan, “Rethinking British Informal Empire in Latin America (Especially Argentina),” Bulletin of Latin American Research 27, no. S1 (March 2008): 23–48CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Lewis, Colin M., “Britiain, the Argentine and Informal Empire: Rethinking the Role of Railway Companies,” Bulletin of Latin American Research 27, no. S1 (March 2008): 99–123CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Rock, David, “The British in Argentina: From Informal Empire to Postcolonialism,” Bulletin of Latin American Research 27, no. S1 (March 2008): 49–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

16 For the history of the community, see Deborah L. Jakubs, “A Community of Interests: A Social History of the British in Buenos Aires, 1860–1914” (PhD diss., Stanford University, 1985); Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony; Roger Gravil, The Anglo-Argentine Connection, 1900–1939 (Boulder, 1985); Klaus Gallo, Great Britain and Argentina: From Invasion to Recognition, 1806–26 (New York, 2001); Florencia Cortés-Conde, Los Angloargentinos en Buenos Aires: Lengua, Identidad y Nación Antes y Después de Malvinas (Buenos Aires, 2007); Rock, “British in Argentina”; idem, “The British of Argentina,” in Bickers, ed., Settlers and Expatriates, 18–44; Gordon Bridger, Britain and the Making of Argentina (Southampton, 2013); Ferns, “Argentina”; Alastair Hennessy, “Argentines, Anglo-Argentines and Others,” in The Land That England Lost: Argentina and Britain, a Special Relationship, ed. Alastair Hennessy and John King (London, 1992), 9–48; Callum A. MacDonald, “End of Empire: The Decline of the Anglo-Argentine Connection 1918–1951,” in The Land That England Lost: Argentina and Britain, a Special Relationship, ed. Alastair Hennessy and John King (London, 1992), 79–92; Dodds, Pink Ice.

17 The National Archives (hereafter TNA), G. T. Murchison (BCC) to Thatcher, 6 May 1982, FCO 7/4640/W4.

18 G. A. D. “Tony” Emerson, the self-appointed chairman of the institution, later admitted this fact. It was reported that he had “gone round collecting signatures from principal British estancia owners,” finding “only two British estancieros, both over 70, who felt the UK was right to respond with force.” TNA, Anthony Williams to P. R. Fearn, 29 April 1982, FCO 7/4640/25.

19 Cited in Christopher Thomas, “Dispute on Views of Islanders,” Times, 14 April 1982.

20 See the letter sent from a “British” school in Buenos Aires to Thatcher, which contained a list of past pupils who had fought in the war: “Una Nota a Margaret Thatcher Ha Remitido el Colegio San Albano,” La Razón, 19 April 1982.

21 “San Albano,” La Razón, 19 April 1982; TNA, G. T. Murchison (BCC) to Thatcher, FCO 7/4640/36b; TNA, G. T. Murchison (BCC) to Thatcher, 27 May 1982, FCO 7/4548/122.

22 Quoted in Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony, 298.

23 TNA, FCO to BISBA, 22 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/43; see also TNA, Thatcher to BCCA, 20 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/31.

24 TNA, R. J. Chase (SAmD) to N. M. Fenn (News Department), 28 May 1982, FCO 7/4548/127. This was a draft reply prepared by the FCO for an interview by an Argentine journalist.

25 TNA, Emergency Committee (BA) to Thatcher, 13 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/16.

26 TNA, BCCA to Thatcher, 15 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/20. A copy of this telegram, moreover, was sent to the Confederation for British Industry (CBI): TNA, BCCA to CBI, 15 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/36.

27 For a good account of the Falklands dispute in the 1970s, see Aaron Donaghy, The British Government and the Falkland Islands, 1974–79, ed. Effie G. H. Pedaliu and John W. Young (Basingstoke, 2014). On the “abandoned Britons” phenomenon, see James Curran and Stuart Ward, The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire (Carlton, 2010), 26–57.

28 Michael Field, “Anglo-Argentines Back Junta ‘After Britain Initiates Hostilities,’” Daily Telegraph, 28 April 1982.

29 TNA, Anthony Williams to Private Secretary, 14 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/14.

30 TNA, J. E. Holmes to P. R. Fearn, 16 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/23.

31 Tony Emerson, “How Argentina's Brits Are Bearing Up,” Times, 24 April 1982.

32 For example, see TNA, Anthony Williams to Sydney Giffard, 19 May 1982, FCO 7/4548/109.

33 TNA, Kenneth Carlisle to Francis Pym, 14 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/14b; TNA, Mark Carlisle (MP) to Francis Pym, 30 April 1982, FCO 7/4477/86.

34 TNA, P. J. Fleming (Latin America) Ltd. to Dudley Smith (MP), 23 April 1982, FCO 7/4478; TNA, Plaid Cymru to Thatcher, 28 April 1982, FCO 7/4477/80b.

35 TNA, John A. F. Lough (Hants) to Robert Adley, MP, 7 April 1982, FCO 7/4476; TNA, Plaid Cymru to Thatcher, 28 April 1982, FCO 7/4477/80b.

36 See Paul Connew, “Britons Quit as Violence Flares,” Daily Mirror, 7 April 1982; Ted Oliver, “Gentlemen's War … Children's Peril,” Daily Mail, 27 April 1982; “Run for Your Lives,” Sun, 24 April 1982; Jeremy Morgan, “Warnings Heighten Britons' Fears,” Guardian, 26 April 1982; Christopher Thomas, “Expatriate Britons Are Getting out Fast,” Times, 7 April 1982; Jimmy Burns, “English-Language Paper under Siege,” Financial Times, 5 May 1982; Christopher Thomas, “A Community's Fears Grow,” Times, 6 May 1982; Frank Taylor, “Britons Advised to Quit Argentina Temporarily,” Daily Telegraph, 6 April 1982.

37 For example, see Thomas, “Expatriate Britons”; Andrew Whitley, “Few Hopes of Magic Formula among Anglo-Argentine Community,” Financial Times, 10 April 1982; Peter Taylor, “The Anguish of the ‘Anglos,’” Sunday Telegraph, 18 April 1982. Only a few published articles recount the experiences of Anglo-Argentines growing up in Argentina, such as Graham-Yooll, “Days in the Life of an Anglo-Argentine Schoolboy,” Guardian, 10 April 1982; Euan Cameron, “An Argentinian Childhood,” Spectator, 1 May 1982.

38 For example, see “Cricket and Polo as Usual for Anglos,” Times, 2 July 1982.

39 Ross Benson, “British ‘Fat Cats’ Who Back the Argentine Junta,” Daily Express, 29 April 1982. Many Anglo-Argentines had ceased to speak in English in public in order to avoid being identified as British.

40 Alexander Chancellor, “Notebook,” Spectator, 26 June 1982.

41 John Christopher, “The Falkland Islands,” Spectator, 10 July 1982.

42 Nicholas Shakespeare, “Down in the Land of the ‘Ancient Brit,’” Daily Telegraph, 24 April 1982.

43 Taylor, “Anguish of the ‘Anglos.’”

44 Frank Taylor, “Why Evita's People Are Rejoicing,” Sunday Telegraph, 4 April 1982.

45 Taylor, “Anguish of the ‘Anglos.’”

46 See, for example, the contributions by Ioan Evans and Frank Allaun (both Labour), Speeches to the House of Commons, 7 April 1982, Parliamentary Debates, 6th ser., vol. 21, cols. 982, 1011–12.

47 Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 29 April 1982, 6th ser., vol. 22, col. 1043.

48 Speech to the House of Lords, 14 April 1982, Parliamentary Debates, 5th ser., vol. 429, col. 321; Parliamentary Debates, Lords, 29 April 1982, 5th ser., vol. 429, col. 997; Parliamentary Debates, Lords, 20 May 1982, 5th ser., vol. 430, col. 831.

49 Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 14 April 1982, 6th Series, vol. 21, col. 362.

50 TNA, HLG 118/2989; see also TNA, FCO 7/4619; CAB 148/218.

51 When Britain broke diplomatic relations with Argentina, the British Embassy was taken over by the Swiss Embassy, which ran a British Interests Section (BISBA) there. See Parliamentary Debates, Commons, 7 April 1982, col. 960; see also TNA, FCO 7/4115.

52 TNA, D. Joy (BISBA) to P. R. Fearn (SAmD, FCO), 13 May 1982, FCO 7/4619/26.

53 TNA, D. A. Dewberry (BISBA) to P. R. Fearn (SAmD), 13 May 1982, FCO 7/4548/102.

54 For an example, see Bickers, ed., Settlers and Expatriates.

55 Luis Alberto Romero, A History of Argentina in the Twentieth Century, trans. James P. Brennan (University Park, 2002); Marino, Santiago and Postolski, Glenn, “Relaciones Peligrosas. Los Medios y la Dictadura entre el Control, la Censura y los Negocios,” Revista de Economía Política de las Tecnologías de la Información y Comunicación 8, no. 1 (April 2006): 1–19Google Scholar; Alejandro García, La Crisis Argentina, 1966–1976. Notas y Documentos de una Época de Violencia Política (Murcia, 1994). For specific examples of guerrilla attacks on the British community, see Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony.

56 Timothy J. Lough, interview by the author, 27 January 2015. On the good relations between the Navy and the Anglo-Argentines, see also Tony Emerson, “Argentina's Brits,” Times, 24 April 1982. For further evidence that the Navy had provided them with protection, see TNA, Anthony Williams to P. R. Fearn, 29 April, FCO 7/4640/25.

57 Lough, interview. Timothy Lough was regularly invited to meetings at the Argentine Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

58 Presidencia de la Nación Argentina, Comisión de Análisis y Evaluación de las Responsabilidades del Conflicto del Altántico Sur (Informe Rattenbach): Anexo, Informe Final, Documentos Recuperados (henceforth IR-AIF-DR), Tomo IV, “Carta al Presidente del Consejo de Seguridad de la ONU,” 16 April 1982; IR-AIF-DR, Tomo III, 12 April 1982; ibid., “Argumentos para la conversación con el General Alexander Haig,” 9 April 1982, fols. 3–4.

59 This was often reflected in the Spanish-language media in Argentina. See “Argumento Falaz Invalidado,” La Prensa, 20 April 1982; “La Comunidad Británica en la Argentina,” La Prensa, 3 May 1982; “El Caso del ‘Herald,’” Clarín, 9 April 1982; Douglas Grant Mine, “Cómo Viven el Conflicto los Anglo-Argentinos,” La Nación, 11 April 1982; Arturo Nieva Woodgate, letter to the editor, La Nación, 9 April 1982; “Comunidad Británica: Por la Paz,” Crónica, 8 April 1982.

60 TNA, Bishop Cutts to Thatcher, 14 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/15. See also TNA, Draft reply to Bishop Cutts, 18 April 1982, FCO 7/4547/27.

61 See Ian J. Strange, The Falkland Islands, 3rd ed. (Newton Abbot, 1983); Smith, 74 Days, 56, entry for 16 April 1982; Strange, Falkland Islands, 260; Graham Bound, Invasion 1982: The Falkland Islanders' Story (Barnsley, 2007), Kindle edition, loc. 2126–30. Some Islanders' accounts differ on the number of Anglo-Argentines making up the delegation: see John Smith, 74 Days: An Islander's Diary of the Falklands Occupation, 2nd ed. (Hampshire, 2002).

62 Strange, Falkland Islands, 265, entry for 23 April 1982.

63 Letter from Nap Bound to anonymous (UK), late April 1982, quoted in Bound, Invasion 1982, loc. 2137–41. See also Smith, 74 Days, 74–75, entry for 25 April 1982; Strange, Falkland Islands, 266.

64 Bound, Invasion 1982, loc. 2141–43.

65 Smith, 74 Days, 74–75, entry for 25 April 1982.

66 Private Papers of T. J. D. Miller, April–June 1982, 25 April 1982, Documents 3921/84/19/1, Imperial War Museum.

67 Strange, Falkland Islands, 265. Camp, deriving from the Spanish campo, is the term used to designate areas outside Stanley.

68 “A Fine Sentiment,” Buenos Aires Herald, 14 April 1982.

69 G. T. Murchison (BCC) to Thatcher, 17 May 1982, quoted in Graham-Yooll, The Forgotten Colony, 291.

70 Nicholas Timmins, “Truce Call to Take Children Away,” Times, 19 May 1982; Smith, 74 Days, 123, entry for 18 May 1982.

71 “Save the Children,” Buenos Aires Herald, 20 May 1982; R. F. V. Cooper, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 14 July 1982.

72 See, for instance, the following editorials: “The Malvinas,” Buenos Aires Herald, 30 November 1968; “Solution in Sight?,” Buenos Aires Herald, 27 November 1980.

73 “Taking It to the Street,” Buenos Aires Herald, 7 April 1982; “A Greater Nation—I,” Buenos Aires Herald, 11 April 1982; “A Greater Nation—II,” Buenos Aires Herald, 12 April 1982.

74 For examples of the Herald's coverage of the war, see “Britain Turns Aggressor,” Buenos Aires Herald, 26 April 1982; “Delayed Reaction,” Buenos Aires Herald, 7 May 1982. On the Junta's pressures, see Thomas, “Dispute,” Times, 14 April 1982; also Dan Newland, interviewed by the author, 8 February 2015. Newland maintains that he was motivated by general anti-war feelings, rather than by “fear of censorship of any kind.”

75 Catherine E. Kirby, interview by the author, 14 June 2014.

76 F. Désirée White, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 29 April 1982.

77 Chancellor, “Notebook.”

78 TNA, D. A. Dewberry (BISBA) to P. R. Fearn (SAmD), 13 May 1982, FCO 7/4548/102.

79 Lida von Schey, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 12 May 1982.

80 Winifred Violet Colson de Allamprese, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 11 June 1982.

81 Edgar Calder-Potts, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 10 June 1982.

82 A. C. de Daniell to Ronald Hansen, undated, May 1982, quoted in Ronald Hansen, Saturday Sidelight, Buenos Aires Herald, 22 May 1982.

83 Margaret Hamlin, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 14 May 1982.

84 Donald Ryan, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 10 June 1982, emphasis mine.

85 Delyth Lloyd de Iglesia, letter to the editor, La Nación, 15 June 1982. For another letter from an Anglo-Argentine in the Spanish language press, see Arturo Nieva Woodgate, letter to the editor, La Nación, 9 April 1982.

86 Catherine E. Kirby, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 25 June 1982.

87 Nell Shakespear to Deborah L. Jakubs, July 1982, quoted in Deborah L. Jakubs, “Straddling the Fence No More: The Falkland/Malvinas War and Its Impact on the Anglo-Argentine Identity,” in Intellectual Migrations: Transcultural Contributions of European and Latin American Émigrés—Papers of the Thirty-First Annual Meeting of the Seminar on the Acquisition of Latin American Library Materials (SALALM), ed. Iliana L. Sonntag (Madison, 1987), 100–6, at 104–5.

88 See Schwarz, Bill, “‘The Only White Man in There’: The Re-Racialisation of England, 1956–1968,” Race & Class 38, no. 1 (July 1996): 65–78CrossRefGoogle Scholar, at 69.

89 M. S. Waterhouse, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 14 May 1982.

90 G. H. Gibson, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 11 August 1982.

91 This was compounded by what many regarded as blatantly pro-Argentine coverage from the Herald. See Gerald S. Milman, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 3 June 1982; Jackie Henderson, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 10 June 1982; Geoffrey Green, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 10 June 1982; Peter Cressall, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 17 June 1982.

92 Reginald Stuart, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 12 May 1982.

93 R. F. V. Cooper, letter to the editor, Buenos Aires Herald, 12 May 1982.

94 On “new nationalism,” see Stuart Ward, “The ‘New Nationalism’ in Australia, Canada and New Zealand: Civic Culture in the Wake of the British World,” in Britishness Abroad: Transnational Movements and Imperial Cultures, ed. Kate Darian-Smith, Stuart MacIntyre, and Patricia Grimshaw (Melbourne, 2007), 231–63; Hopkins, A. G., “Rethinking Decolonization,” Past and Present 200, no. 1 (August 2008): 211–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

95 Hansen also had Danish ancestry. Newland, interview; Cortés-Conde, Angloargentinos, 123.

96 Ronald Hansen, “The Anglo-Argentine Dilemma”, Buenos Aires Herald, 13 May 1982.

97 Kirby, interview; Lough, interview.

98 The statue was restored in 1994, but placed instead in Plaza Mitre. For an account of this event, see Federico Lorenz, “Los Jóvenes y la Guerra de Malvinas: a Propósito de la Película Los Chicos De La Guerra,” Cine y Formación Docente (Buenos Aires, 2005), 1–16.

99 See Julio Cardoso, ed., Malvinas En La Historia: Una Perspectiva Suramericana (Lanús, 2011), 165.

100 Willy G. Bouillon, “Fin de una Historia Muy British,” La Nación, 7 August 1998; Colin Barraclough, “End of the Club for Anglo-Argentines,” Daily Telegraph, 12 May 2002; Daisy Goodwin, “Last of England,” Guardian, 6 March 1999; Uki Goni, “Legendary Buenos Aires Cafe to Make Way for Nike Shop,” Guardian, 21 August 2011.

101 ABCC, “About the ABCC: The Why and the Wherefore,” http://www.abcc.com.ar/about-the-abcc-the-why-and-the-wherefore, accessed 10 March 2015.

102 “Heartbreak Choice as the Anglos Break Their Old Links and Throw in Their Lots with the Argentines,” Daily Mail, 15 April 1983; Phillip Hay, “Falklands Factor Ensures Divided Loyalties at the Club,” BBC Listener, 8 January 1987; Gabriella Gamini, “Anglo-Argentines Bat on in Defence of Tea and Scones,” Times, 30 March 1992; Goodwin, “Last of England”; Sophie Campbell, “A Flavour of Britain Down Old Buenos Aires Way,” Financial Times, 23 April 2005.

103 See Cortés-Conde, Angloargentinos, 61.

104 Darwin, “Orphans,” 330.