A set of microstructural variables is selected to characterize the behavior of snow. Corresponding mathematical relations from quantitative stereology theory are presented along with relations and techniques required for numerical evaluation. An experimental investigation is carried out to determine changes in these variables for snow subjected to large compressive deformations. The micro-structural variables studied included coordination number, grain-size, bond radius, neck length, pore-size, free surface area and grains/unit volume. Measurements at several stages of deformation are used to evaluate the changes in the microstructure as functions of deformation. Microstructure measurements of six snow samples subjected to confined compression tests are presented for pre-compressed and compressed states, corresponding to final stresses of 0.387, 0.77 and 1.55 MPa. Grain-size and bond radius were found to go through finite changes during compression, although the variation of bond radius was more complicated in nature. The coordination number and number of bonds/unit volume were found to go through large changes during compression, while specific free surface area was found to increase by 100% due to grain- and bond-fracture processes. No discernible patterns of change in neck length could be found in the experiments. A close relationship between some of the microstructural variables and the stress response of the material was observed. These results serve to contribute to the presently available data and understanding of the microstructural behavior of snow.

The intensity of the Seasat altimeter return power over Antarctica varies in strong correlation with the intensity of model katabatic winds. It is also strongly correlated with the polarization of the passive microwave signal at 37 GHz of the Nimbus-7 SMMR data. It is shown that this is most likely the result of the wind-induced micro-roughness of the ice surface.

A simple momentum model, assuming that snow compacts along a prescribed pressure–density curve, is used to calculate the pressure attenuation of shock waves in snow. Four shock-loading situations are examined: instantaneously applied pressure impulses for one-dimensional, cylindrical and spherical shock-wave geometries, and a one-dimensional pressure impulse of finite duration. Calculations show that for an instantaneously applied impulse the pressure attenuation for one-dimensional, cylindrical and spherical shock waves is determined by the pressure density (P–ρ) compaction curve of snow. The maximum attenuation for a one-dimensional shock wave is proportional to (Xf–X0)−1.5 for the multi-stage (P–ρ) curve and (Xf–X0)−2 when compaction occurs in a single step (single-stage compaction), where (Xf–X0) is the shock-wave propagation distance. Cylindrical waves have a maximum attenutation that varies from (R–R0)−2 for single-stage compaction and (R–R0)−1.5 for multi-stage compaction, when (R – R0) ≪ R0, where R is the propagation radius and R0 is the interior radius over which a pressure impulse is applied, to R−4 when (R – R0) ≫ R0 Spherical waves have a maximum attenuation that varies from (R – R0)−2 for single-stage compaction and (R – R0)−1.5 for multi-stage compaction to R−6 when 〈R – R0〉 ≫ R0.

The shock-wave pressure in snow for a finite-duration pressure impulse is determined by the pressure impulse versus time profile during the time interval of the impulse. After the pressure impulse ends, shock-wave pressure attenuation is the same as for an instantaneously applied pressure impulse containing the same total momentum. Pressure attenuation near a shock-wave source, where the duration of the shock wave is relatively short, is greater than for a shock wave farther from a source where the shock wave has a relatively long duration. Shock-wave attenuation in snow can be delayed or reduced by increasing the duration of a finite-duration pressure impulse. A sufficiently long-duration impulse may result in no shock-wave pressure attenuation in a shallow snow cover.

Speke Glacier, the best studied and largest single glacier in the Ruwenzori Range (Uganda, East Africa), was revisited in January 1990. A comparison of its present state with former observations reveals that its terminus receded 35–45 m between 1958 and 1977; since 1977 it has retreated more than 150 m. Nearly half the width of the snout has been lost, mainly on its western side, and the entire western section of the south-facing glacier has shrunk substantially. The observed fluctuation conforms with changes occurring on other tropical glaciers. Explanations concerning the reasons for the glacier recession are presented.

The quality and utility of the records of oxygen-isotopic abundances, dust concentrations and anionic concentrations preserved in the ice at Siple Station (75°55′ S, 84° 15′ W) are assessed from four shallow (20 m) cores. The combination of high accumulation (0.56 m a−1 w.e.) and low mean annual temperature (—24°C) preserves the prominent seasonal variations in δ18Ο which are very spatially coherent. Sulfate concentrations vary seasonally and, in conjunction with δ18Ο, will allow accurate dating of deeper cores from Siple Station. The concentrations of insoluble dust are the lowest measured in Antarctica, making Siple Station an excellent location to examine large increases in atmospheric tubidity.

The seasonal variations and annual fluxes of the anions are examined for the last two decades (AD 1966–85) with regard to probable sources. An unusually high sulfate flux in 1976 may reflect the February 1975 eruption of Mount Ngauruhoe, New Zealand. No annual signal in nitrate concentration is confirmed and no unusually high nitrate fluxes support the suggestion of nitrate production by large solar flares. However, nitrate flux is higher for the latter half of the 1970s and early 1980s, possibly reflecting the recent loss of stratospheric ozone.

Finally, comparison of the δ18O record with available surface-temperature data (AD 1957–85) reveals that multi-year trends along the western coast of the Antarctic Peninsula are recorded at Siple. More importantly, comparison with areally weighted temperature reconstructions suggests that the δ18Ο record may reflect larger-scale, persistent trends in the high southern latitudes. The strong spatial coherence of the preserved records, the potential for accurate dating, and possible relevance to larger-scale processes make Siple Station an excellent site for paleoenvironmental reconstruction from ice cores.

In an earlier study on the variations in micro-structure during large volumetric deformations of snow, the authors observed that, contrary to expectations, the length of necked regions connecting adjacent grains did not necessarily decrease during compression. Rather, there was no discernible or predictable change in neck length, in some cases increasing and in others decreasing. Further evaluations of the data and an analysis of the mechanics of neck deformation determined that the process is complicated by three different effects: (1) increase in coordination number (number of bonds per grain), (ii) plastic deformation of the neck, and (iii) a geometric effect determined by bond growth and grain geometry. It is found that the first two effects tend to decrease the neck length and that the third produces an increase in mean neck length. A set of coupled differential equations is developed describing the variation of neck length and bond radius, and solved numerically for conditions consistent with the experimental data. Calculated results agree well with the data for the bond radius but the results for the neck length are less satisfactory. Reasons for this lie with difficulty in making accurate measurements of mean neck length from two-dimensional surface-section data and in the criteria for the definition of necks.

Changes in ground-surface temperature for the past few hundred years have been derived from deep temperature profiles at three wells in the northeastern Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and compared with the climatic history derived from the oxygen-isotope ratio 18O/16O measured in an ice core from the Agassiz Ice Cap, about 180-260 km to the east. Analysis of the ground-temperature profiles suggests that surface temperatures in the area decreased after the Little Climatic Optimum about 1000 years ago until the Little Ice Age (LIA). About 100 years ago, ground-surface temperatures appear to have increased by 2-5K to reach today’s values, while air temperatures increased by 2-3K, according to the isotope record. Part of the larger ground-surface temperature change may be due to other paleoenvironmental effects, such as an increase in snow cover coincident with the end of the LIA.

The δ18O climatic record was successful in predicting the general features of the ground-temperature profiles observed at two of the sites, but not the third. There is contemporary evidence that surface temperatures at the latter site may be substantially modified by other environmental factors such as snow cover.

From observations and calculations of crack patterns in ice, it is suggested that a similar mechanism may account for cracking over a wide range of scales.

We have performed high-precision measurements of the isotope-fractionation factors between ice and water. Ice was grown from a stirred water mass on a cooling plate. The freezing velocity was varied, keeping the stirring rate of the water constant, so that the equilibrium fractionation factors could be determined by extrapolating to zero freezing velocity. The resulting values are

∝ (18O/16O) = 1.00291 ± 0.00003 and

∝ (D/H) = 1.0212 ± 0.0004.

Non-equilibrium freezing of lake and sea ice is briefly discussed as well as the significance of our results for the deuterium excess in polar precipitation.

An X-band FM-CW radar was used to determine the feasibility of observing annual snow-accumulation layers in Antarctica with a high-resolution inexpensive radar system. The formation of layering boundaries, their resultant electromagnetic discontinuity and their detection by reflected energy are presented. Large returns from depths corresponding to reasonable positions for annual layers were found. The average accumulation rates calculated from the radar returns agree with those measured in a previous pit study done in the same area. The detection of the annual accumulation layers with this system implies a simple, inexpensive mobile radar could be used to profile large areas allowing the distorting effects of local topography to be removed.This type of system with a concurrent pit study could provide insight into the effect of sub-surface strata on spaceborne or airborne microwave remote sensing.

Water-pressure fluctuations beneath glaciers may accelerate rock fracture by redistributing stresses on subglacial bedrock and changing the pressure of water in bedrock cracks. To study the potential influence of water-pressure fluctuations on the fracture of subglacial bedrock, ice flow over a small bedrock step with a water-filled cavity in its lee is numerically modeled, and stresses on the bedrock surface are calculated as a function of transient water pressures in the cavity. Stresses on the bed are then used to calculate principal stress differences within the step. Rapid reductions in cavity water pressure increase principal stress differences in the bed, increasing the likelihood of crack growth in the step and the formation of predominantly vertical fractures. Relatively impermeable bedrock may be most susceptible to fracturing during water-pressure reductions because high water pressure in cracks within the rock can be maintained, as water pressure decreases in cavities. These results, when considered in conjunction with the strong likelihood that increases in water pressure accelerate the removal of rock fragments loosened from the bed, suggest that in zones of ice-bed separation where water-pressure fluctuations typically are large, rates of quarrying may be higher than along other parts of glacier beds.

An ice sheet will, in general, possess points where the horizontal component of velocity is zero, and some of these will be ice centres, occurring close to summits. The paper examines the possible flow patterns near such points. The corresponding horizontal strain-rate pattern is studied by considering an ice sheet which initially has perfect circular symmetry about a vertical axis. Before perturbation there is an isotropic point for the horizontal surface strain rate at the centre. It may be shown, on purely topological grounds and without any reference to the mechanism of flow, that, when the symmetry is broken, this point, being degenerate and structurally unstable, breaks up into two structurally stable components. The breakup always occurs in essentially the same way. Around the two component points the trajectories of principal strain-rate directions always have the lemon pattern. The contours of equal principal strain rate around them are usually hyperbolic; however, if the unperturbed flow pattern had a very pronounced spiral character, they would be elliptic. This behaviour is in contrast to that of the ice centre itself, which remains unsplit.

Measured englacial temperatures at the Colle Gnifetti core-drilling site are presented and compared with model calculations concerning possible effects of 20th century warming. The firn/ice saddle at the 124 m deep saddle borehole is cold throughout with a mean annual surface temperature near –14°C and a basal temperature slightly below –12°C. Influence of refreezing meltwater is weak and limited to near-surface formation of ice layers (recrystallization-infiltration). Temperature gradients in the saddle borehole are positive and increase from 0.015° to 0.019°C m−1 between 30 m depth and bedrock, corresponding to a mean vertical heat flow of around 50mWm−2. The observed temperature profile is close to steady-state conditions. It can well be reproduced with time-dependent model calculations using mean annual air temperatures from the nearby weather station of Grand St. Bernard within the main chain of the Swiss Alps, but it significantly deviates from similar calculations based on Säntis data, reflecting developments of air temperatures on the northern slope of the Alps. 20th century warming of cold Alpine firn seems to be much less pronounced than in polar areas, where strong heat-flow anomalies are commonly observed.

The temperatures in downhill skies were measured with thermocouples to investigate the heat generation associated with the sliding of skis on snow. In these tests we investigated the effects on ski temperature of the ambient snow temperature, snow type, speed, load and thermal conductivity. A significant temperature rise at the base of the ski was found at the onset of motion in all runs. The temperature rise increased for heavier loads and at lower ambient temperatures. Some ski runs lasted long enough to observe a steady-state temperature at the ski base; it increased with ambient temperature. Longitudinal and transverse temperature variations occurred and were sensitive to snow hardness and skiing technique.

We also investigated heat flow through the cross-section of the ski with a finite-element model to determine the effects of ski structure on heat retention at the base. We found that the thermal characteristics as determined by the structure of the ski had a significant effect on the temperature at the ski base. At lower temperatures we expect that friction will be greater in skis which have a large aluminum plate across their base. Steel edges have a lesser effect.

The recovery of past climatic conditions from ice-sheet borehole temperatures can best be accomplished using the calculus of variations (control methods) to minimize mismatch between the observed profile and a solution of the heat equation which depends on the unknown climate history. Here, we use control methods and a simple one-dimensional heat equation and the temperature depth profile observed at Dye-3 to infer the surface temperature of south Greenland over the last 30 000 years. This history illustrates the virtues that recommend control methods for future use in borehole-temperature analysis, namely: (i) it meets objective performance criteria, and (ii) its uncertainty can be established quantitatively. Our inferred climate history displays what may be the Younger Dryas cold event at about 9000 years BP. Borehole paleothermometry by control methods may thus resolve the controversy concerning the interpretation of Greenland ice-core isotope records.

Statistical analysis of 1754 normal and surge-type glaciers of the Yukon Territory, Canada, reveals that the two glacier types have significantly different average geometries. Surge-type glaciers tend to be longer, wider and to have lower overall slope than normal glaciers. Because there are strong intercorrelations involving length, width and slope, it is not immediately clear which relationships are fundamental and which are secondary. Multiple correlation analysis allows these confusions to be resolved and reveals that the correlation between length and surge tendency is the fundamental one. The direct correlation between surge tendency and width and the inverse correlation between surge tendency and slope are entirely a result of the length-width and length-slope correlations. This conclusion may have implications for the glacier-surge mechanism because one prediction of the Kamb theory of surging is that small slopes (as opposed to great lengths) favour surging. Fowler’s theory of surging predicts that glaciers for which the product θw2 (where θ is slope and w is width) is small are more likely to be surge-type than those for which the product is large, but analysis of the correlation between this parameter and surge tendency lends no support to this claim.

A number of theoretical and empirical studies have indicated that many individual characteristics of ice formed by processes of net basal adfreezing may be sensitive to the rate of propagation of the freezing front through the reservoir concerned. The effects of freezing rate on the the stable-isotope chemistry and crystallography of ice, in addition to the disposition and character of included debris and gas are reported. Unidirectional freezing through a cylindrical reservoir containing various water–sediment mixtures has been conducted in the laboratory and the resulting cores analysed for debris and gas disposition and ice-crystal size and fabric. The data lend support to inferences drawn from studies concerned with specific ice properties and an idealized suite of characteristics is developed which may be diagnostic of basal ice formed by net adfreezing.

A drop of water falling gently on to a cold copper surface freezes to it, forming a curious minaret-shaped pellet of ice. The shear tractive force necessary then to remove the ice pellet depends on the initial temperature of the metal: it is a maximum at −22°C and falls to zero at −62°C. At impact velocities greater than approximately 0.8 ms−1, depending on the metal temperature, the droplets of water freeze to form irregular pancakes or discs of ice which adhere to the metal weakly if at all.

Fluctuations of glacier termini were studied in two regions in Alaska. In the Wrangell Mountains, 15 glaciers on Mount Wrangell, an active volcano, have been monitored over the past 30 years by surveying, photogrammetry and satellite. Results, which are consistent between different methods of measurement, indicate that the termini of most glaciers were stationary or retreating slightly. However, the termini of the 30 km long Ahtna Glacier and the smaller Center and South MacKeith Glaciers began to advance in the early 1960s and have advanced steadily between 5 and 18 m a−1 since then. These three glaciers flow from the active North Crater, where increased volcanic heating since 1964 has melted over 7 x 107 m3 of ice. We suspect that volcanic meltwater has changed the basal conditions for the three glaciers, resulting in their advance.

The terminus fluctuations of six tide-water and near-tide-water glaciers in College Fjord, Prince William Sound, have been monitored since 1931 by surveying, photogrammetry and, most recently, by satellite imagery. Harvard Glacier, a 40 km long tide-water glacier, has been advancing at an average rate of nearly 20 ma−1 since 1931, while the adjacent Yale Glacier has retreated at approximately 50 ma−1 during the same period though, for short periods, both of these rates have been much higher. The striking contrast between the terminus behavior of Yale and Harvard Glaciers, which parallel each other in the same fiord, and are derived from the same snowfield, supports the hypothesis that their terminus behavior is largely the result of dynamic controls rather than changes in climate.

Hobson’s Choice Ice Island is a tabular iceberg that calved in 1982-83 from East Ward Hunt Ice Shelf, N.W.T., Canada. Four ice cores have been analyzed for ice-crystal size, structure and fabric, bulk density, liquid electrical conductivity, δ18O and tritium. This has enabled a complete characterization of the physical properties and the structural characteristics of the ice-shelf component of Hobson’s Choice Ice Island and the first ever study of the stratigraphy and growth history of East Ward Hunt Ice Shelf. The δ18O values range from -34.6 to and indicate that all the ice is derived directly and/or indirectly from precipitation. High tritium values occur only in the lowermost 5 m of the ice shelf in a layer named stratum B. The tritium is anthropogenic and indicates bottom accretion of fresh-water ice since 1952, most likely from fresh water flowing out of Disraeli Fiord below the eastern ice shelf. Above this deepest and youngest ice layer is a 35-38 m thick, unconformable layer (stratum A) comprising three ice types: iced-firn, slush ice and lake ice. This depositional-superimposed ice represents past surface accumulation, which, according to δ18O and ice-crystal structure and size variations, occurred in three major periods, each interrupted by major ablation periods. Fresh water flowing out of Disraeli Fiord below the ice shelf during those warm intervals was the most likely agent responsible for the ablation and eventual complete loss of the original sea-ice platform on which stratum A initially accumulated. The three sub-strata of stratum A vary in thickness from core to core and suggest that there has been an inversion of relief during each ablation period. The different properties and occurrences of the three superimposed ice types are due primarily to past topographic variability.