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From converts to cooperation: Protestant internationalism, US missionaries and Indian Christians and ‘Professional’ social work between Boston and Bombay (c. 1920–1950)

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 April 2021

Michael Phillipp Brunner Open the ORCID record for Michael Phillipp Brunner [Opens in a new window]
Michael Phillipp Brunner*
Affiliation:
Department of Religion, Tufts University, 302 Eaton Hall, Medford, MA, 02155, USA
*
Corresponding author. E-mail: michael.brunner@tufts.edu
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Abstract

The 1920s and 30s were a high phase of liberal missionary internationalism driven especially by American-led visions of the Social Gospel. As the missionary consensus shifted from proselytization to social concerns, the indigenization of missions and the role of the ‘younger churches’ outside of Europe and North America was brought into focus. This article shows how Protestant internationalism pursued a ‘Christian Sociology’ in dialogue with the field’s academic and professional form.

Through the case study of settlement sociology and social work schemes by the American Marathi Mission (AMM) in Bombay, the article highlights the intricacies of applying internationalist visions in the field and asks how they were contested and shaped by local conditions and processes. Challenging a simplistic ‘secularization’ narrative, the article then argues that it was the liberal, anti-imperialist drive of the missionary discourse that eventually facilitated an American ‘professional imperialism’ in the development of secular social work in India. Adding local dynamics to the analysis of an internationalist discourse benefits the understanding of both Protestant internationalism and the genesis of Indian social work and shows the value of an integrated global micro-historical approach.

Keywords

Protestant internationalismAmerican missionariesIndian Christianitysocial worksecularization
Type
Article
Information
Journal of Global History , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , November 2021 , pp. 415 - 434
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© The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press

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Footnotes

†

I would like to thank Heather D. Curtis and Harald Fische-Tiné for reading and commenting on early drafts of this article. Valuable feedback from the three anonymous peer reviewers and from Heidi Tworek helped to significantly improve the quality of the piece. I am indebted to Mircea Raianu for generously sharing source material from the Tata Central Archives in Pune with me. Finally, I am very grateful to Leslie A. Morris, Gore Vidal Curator of Modern Books & Manuscripts, Houghton Library, Harvard University, and Karen Georgia A. Thompson, Associate General Minister of Wider Church Ministries, United Church of Christ for the permission to quote from the ABCFM archives.

References

1 Dana L. Robert, ‘The First Globalization: The Internationalization of the Protestant Missionary Movement Between the World Wars,’ International Bulletin of Mission Research 26, no. 2 (2002): 50–66; Michael G. Thompson, For God and Globe. Christian Internationalism in the United States between the Great War and the Cold War (Ithaca/London: Cornell University Press, 2015). On the broader context of inter-war internationalism, cf. Daniel Gorman, The Emergence of International Society in the 1920s (Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).

2 Cf. Peter Kallaway, ‘Education, Health and Social Welfare in the Late Colonial Context: The International Missionary Council and Educational Transition in the Interwar Years with Specific Reference to Colonial Africa,’ History of Education 38, no. 2 (2009): 217–46.

3 Susan Curtis, A Consuming Faith: The Social Gospel and Modern American Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Christopher Evans, The Social Gospel in American Religion: A History (New York: New York University Press, 2017).

4 Thompson, For God and Globe.

5 Gina A. Zurlo, ‘The Social Gospel, Ecumenical Movement, and Christian Sociology: The Institute of Social and Religious Research,’ American Sociologist 46, no. 2 (2015): 177–93, here 181ff.; Cecil E. Greek, The Religious Roots of American Sociology (New York: Garland Publishing, 1992).

6 Thomas L. Haskell, The Emergence of Professional Social Science: the American Social Science Association and the Nineteenth-Century Crisis of Authority (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1977); Mary O. Furner, Advocacy & Objectivity: A Crisis in the Professionalization of American Social Science, 1865–1905 (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1975).

7 Greek, The Religious Roots, 196. Cf. Harald Fischer-Tiné, Stefan Huebner and Ian Tyrrell, eds., Spreading Protestant Modernity: Global Perspectives on the Social Work of the YMCA and YWCA, 1889–1970 (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2021).

8 David A. Hollinger, Protestants Abroad: How Missionaries Tried to Change the World but Changed America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2019); Gene Zubovich, ‘The Global Gospel: Protestant Internationalism and American Liberalism, 1940–1960’ (PhD diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2015); David Ekbladh, The Great American Mission: Modernization and the Construction of an American World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); Ian Tyrrell, Reforming the World: The Creation of America’s Moral Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010).

9 Important works with a strong focus on the local effects on American missions, on the other hand, often engage only partially with the internationalist context; cf. Jeffrey Cox, Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in India, 1818–1940 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002); Heather Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt: Missionary Encounters in an Age of Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2008); Ussama Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven: American Missionaries and the Failed Conversion of the Middle East (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008).

10 Samuel Moyn and Andrew Sartori, eds., Global Intellectual History (New York: Columbia University Press, 2013).

11 Dag Herbjørnsrud, ‘Beyond Decolonizing: Global Intellectual History and Reconstruction of a Comparative Method,’ Global Intellectual History, online (2019).

12 Cf. Richard Drayton and David Motadel, ‘Discussion: The Futures of Global History,’ Journal of Global History 13, no. 1 (2018): 1–21, here 11f.; Harald Fischer-Tiné, ‘Marrying Global History with South Asian History: Potential and Limits of Global Microhistory in a Regional Inflection,’ Comparativ 29, no. 2 (2019): 52–77.

13 Abigail Greene and Vincent Viaene, eds., Religious Internationals in the Modern World: Globalization and Faith Communities since 1750 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 1.

14 Cf. Gene Zubovich, ‘The Protestant Search for ‘the Universal Christian Community’ between Decolonization and Communism,’ Religions 8, no. 2 (2017): 1–12.

15 Silke Martini, Postimperiales Asien: Die Zukunft Indiens und Chinas in der anglophonen Weltöffentlichkeit, 1919–1939 (Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter, 2017).

16 Cf. Fischer-Tiné, ‘Marrying Global History with South Asian History’.

17 James Midgley, Professional Imperialism: Social Work in the Third World (London: Heinemann, 1981); id., ‘Promoting reciprocal international social work exchanges: professional imperialism revisited,’ in Indigenous Social Work Around the World: Toward Culturally Relevant Education and Practice, edited by M. Gray, J. Coates and M. Yellow Bird (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2008), 31–45; Lynne M. Healy, ‘Global Education for Social Work: Old Debates and Future Directions for International Social Work,’ in Global Social Work: Crossing Borders, Blurring Boundaries, edited by Carolyn Noble, Helle Strauss and Brian Littlechild (Sydney: Sydney University Press, 2014), 369–80.

18 Gianinna Muñoz Arce, ‘Latin American Social Work and the Struggles Against Professional Imperialism,’ in Routledge Handbook of Postcolonial Social Work, edited by Tanja Kleibl et al. (Oxon: Routledge, 2019), 163–73; Jem Price and Kepa Artaraz, ‘Professional ‘Imperialism’ and Resistance: Social Work in the Filippines,’ Global Social Work 3, no. 5 (2013): 28–53.

19 Sudipta Kaviraj, ‘Global Intellectual History: Meanings and Methods,’ in Global Intellectual History, edited by Moyn/Sartori, 295–319; David Armitage, ‘The International Turn in Intellectual History,’ in Rethinking Modern European Intellectual History, edited by Darrin M. McMahon and Samuel Moyn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014) 232–52.

20 William R. Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations: A History of the International Missionary Council and its Nineteenth-Century Background (New York: Harper, 1952).

21 Jan Van Lin, Shaking the Fundamentals: Religious Plurality and Ecumenical Movement (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2002); Jonathan S. Barnes, Power and Partnership: A History of the Protestant Mission Movement (Eugene: Pickwick Publications, 2013), 170–82; Thompson, For God and the Globe, 108–13.

22 David M. Gill, ‘The Secularization Debate Foreshadowed: Jerusalem 1928,’ International Review of Mission 57, no. 227 (1968): 344–57.

23 International Missionary Council, ed., Report of the Jerusalem Meeting of the International Missionary Council, March 24th–April 8th, 1928, Vol I: The Christian Life and Message in Relation to Non-Christian Systems (London: Oxford University Press, 1928), v. Cf. Rufus Jones, ‘Secular Civilization and the Christian Task,’ in ibid., 284–338.

24 Justin Reynolds, Against the World: International Protestantism and the Ecumenical Movement between Secularization and Politics, 1900–1952 (PhD diss., Columbia University, New York, 2016).

25 Barnes, Power and Partnership, 179–84.

26 On the convergence of these concerns, cf. Amalia Ribi Forclaz, ‘A New Target for International Social Reform. The International Labour Organisation and Working and Living Conditions in Agriculture in the Interwar Years,’ Journal of Contemporary European History 20, no. 3 (2011): 307–29.

27 James Alan Patterson, ‘The Loss of a Protestant Missionary Consensus: Foreign Missions and the Fundamentalist-Modernist Conflict,’ in Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880–1980, edited by Joel A. Carpenter and Wilbert R. Shenk (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 281–300; Barnes, Power and Partnership, 179.

28 C. Howard Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A Biography (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979), 660f.; Eleanor Jackson, Red Tape and the Gospel: A Study of the Significance of the Ecumenical Missionary Struggle of William Paton, 1886–1943 (Birmingham: Phlogiston, 1980), 158.

29 IMC, Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. V: Christianity and the Growth of Industrialism in Asia, Africa and South America, 181.

30 Hogg, Ecumenical Foundations, 271f.: Barnes, Power & Partnership, 198ff.

31 Jackson, Red Tape and the Gospel, 184–91.

32 Cf. Tomoko Akami, Internationalizing the Pacific: The United States and Japan, and the Institute of Pacific Relations in War and Peace (London: Routledge, 2002).

33 Barnes, Power & Partnership, 211.

34 Cit. in Hopkins, John R. Mott, 604.

35 Zurlo, ‘The Social Gospel, Ecumenical Movement, and Christian Sociology’.

36 Gregory Vanderbilt, ‘The Laymen’s Foreign Missions Inquiry, the Omi Mission, and Imperial Japan: Missionary Social Science and One Pre-History of Religion and Development,’ in The Mission of Development, edited by Catherine Scheer, Philip Fountain and R. Michael Feener (Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2018), 59–81.

37 Ibid.

38 Frederik Torm, ‘The Place of Social Questions in Missionary Work,’ International Review of Missions 19, no. 76 (1930): 593–603, here 595.

39 Richard H. Tawney, ‘The Bearing of Christianity on Social and Industrial Questions, I,’ in Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. V, edited by IMC, 159–69. Cf. David Lyon, ‘The Idea of a Christian Sociology: Some Historical Precedents and Current Concerns,’ Sociological Analysis 44, no. 3 (1983): 227–42.

40 Kallaway, ‘Education, Health and Social Welfare,’ 222.

41 IMC, Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. V, 41.

42 M. Cécile Matheson, Indian Industry. Yesterday, To-day and To-morrow (London: Oxford University Press, 1930).

43 Ibid., 173.

44 Jackson, Red Tape and the Gospel, 146f.

45 Cf. report of the meeting in Matheson, Indian Industry, 179–85.

46 IMC, Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. V, 42.

47 Fischer-Tiné, ‘Marrying Global History with South Asian History,’ 51.

48 Joseph Moulton, Faith for the Future: The American Marathi Mission, India, Sesquicentennial 1963 (New York: UCBWM, 1967), 24.

49 ‘The Development of Social Work and the Social Motive in the Marathi Mission of the American Board,’ February 1926, 22, American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions archives, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge MA [hereafter cited as ABCFMA], ABC 16.1.1, v. 39. All quotes from the ABCFM archives are reproduced by permission of the Houghton Library, Harvard University, and the Wider Church Ministries, United Church of Christ.

50 Ibid.

51 ‘Suggested Statement of Policy presented to the General Council for its Consideration in 1928 with a view to possible action in 1929 and 1930,’ January 1928, 1, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 40.

52 Cf. Prashant Kidambi, Manjiri Kamat and Rachel Dwyer, eds., Bombay Before Mumbai: Essays in Honour of Jim Masselos (London: Hurst & Co., 2019).

53 Prashant Kidambi, The Making of an Indian Metropolis: Colonial Governance and Public Culture in Bombay, 1890–1920 (Hampshire: Ashgate, 2007), 204–33.

54 Carey A. Watt, Serving the Nation: Cultures of Service, Association and Citizenship in Colonial India (New Delhi/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Priyanka Srivastava, The Well-Being of the Labor Force in Colonial Bombay: Discourses and Practices (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2018), 109–52. Cf. Kidambi, Making of an Indian Metropolis, 231; id., ‘From ‘Social Reform’ to ‘Social Service’: Indian Civic Activism and the Civilizing Mission in Colonial Bombay c. 1900–20,’ Civilizing Missions in Colonial and Post-Colonial South Asia: From Improvement to Development, edited by Michael Mann and Carey Watt (London: Anthem Press, 2011), 217–38.

55 Srivastava, The Well-Being of the Labor Force, 111f.

56 IMC, Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. V, 41.

57 Kidambi, Making of an Indian Metropolis, 221–32, id., ‘From ‘Social Reform’ to ‘Social Service’,’ 230–5.

58 Robert E. Frykenberg, Christianity in India. From Beginning to the Present (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 414f.

59 H.L. Richard, Following Jesus in the Hindu Context: The Intriguing Implications of N. V. Tilak’ Life and Thought (Pasadena: William Carey Library, 1998); Laxmibai Tilak, I Follow After: An Autobiography, transl. by E. Josephine Inkster (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1950).

60 Jeffrey Cox, Imperial Fault Lines: Christianity and Colonial Power in India, 1818–1940 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), 253. Cf. Geoffrey A. Oddie, ‘Indian Christians and National Identity, 1870–1947,’ Journal of Religious History 25, no. 3 (2001): 346–66, here 346f.

61 Oddie, ‘Indian Christians and National Identity,’ 359f.

62 ‘Minutes of the American Marathi Mission, General Council Meeting at Ahmednagar, January 18–25, 1928,’ 2, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 38.

63 Tara Tilak, ‘Further Openings for Social Work,’ in Women in Modern India: Fifteen Papers by Indian Women Writers, edited by Evelyn C. Gedge and Mithan Choksi (Bombay: D.B. Taraporewala Sons & Co., 1929), 149–61; B.A. Engineer and Mithan Choksi, ‘Seva Sadan and Other Social Work in Bombay,’ Women in Modern India, 43–52, here 49f.; Mary Jenness, The Orient Steps Out (New York: Abingdon Press, 1931), 29–33.

64 Maisie Wright, Under Malabar Hill: Letters from India 1928–1933 (London: BACSA, 1988), 56.

65 Tilak, ‘Further Openings for Social Work,’ 160.

66 For example, A.R. Caton, ed., The Key of Progress: A Survey of the Status and Conditions of Women in India (London: Oxford University Press, 1930), 173, 177; John McKenzie, ed., The Christian Task in India (London: Macmillan & Co., 1929), 60, 64.

67 Jenness, The Orient Steps Out.

68 Robert Schildgen, Toyohiko Kagawa: Apostle of Love and Social Justice (Berkeley: Centenary Books, 1988); Charles W. Hayford, To the People: James Yen and Village China (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990).

69 Barbara Reeves-Ellington, Kathryn Kish Sklar, and Connie A. Shemo (eds), Competing Kingdoms: Women, Mission, Nation, and the American Protestant Empire, 1812–1960 (Durham: Duke University Press, 2010); Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-century China (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984).

70 Dana Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1996); For a non-American example, cf. Julia Hauser, German Religious Women in Late Ottoman Beirut. Competing Missions (Leiden: Brill, 2015).

71 Susan Haskell Khan, ‘From Redeemers to Partners: American Women Missionaries and the “Woman Question” in India, 1919–1939,’ Competing Kingdoms, edited by Reeves-Ellington/Sklar/Shemo, 141–164.

72 Padma Anagol, ‘Indian Christian Women and Indigenous Feminism, c. 1850–c. 1920,’ in Gender and Imperialism, edited by Clare Midgley (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1998), 79–103; Claire Midgley, ‘Indian feminist Pandita Ramabai and Transnational Liberal Religious Networks in the Nineteenth-Century World,’ Women in Transnational History: Connecting the Local and the Global, edited by id., Alison Twells and Julie Carlier (London: Routledge, 2016), 13–33.

73 Justin Reynolds, ‘From Christian anti-imperialism to postcolonial Christianity: M.M. Thomas and the ecumenical theology of communism in the 1940s and 1950s,’ Journal of Global History 13, no. 2 (2018): 230–51.

74 T. Howland Sanks, ‘Liberation Theology and the Social Gospel: Variations on a Theme,’ Theological Studies 41, no. 4 (1980): 668–82.

75 Elisabeth Engel, ‘The Ecumenical Origins of Pan-Africanism: Africa and the ‘Southern Negro’ in the International Missionary Council’s Global Vision of Christian Indigenization in the 1920s,’ Journal of Global History 13, no. 2 (2018): 209–29.

76 Cit. in a letter from J.F. Edwards to Alden H. Clark/secretaries ABCFM, 27 July 1931, 1, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1., v. 46.

77 Mabel E. Emerson to J.F. Edwards, 22 August 1931, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1., v. 46.

78 Yoginder Sikand, ‘Arya Shuddhi and Muslim Tabligh: Muslim Reactions to Arya Samaj Proselytization (1923–1930),’ in Religious Conversion in India: Modes, Motivations and Meanings, edited by Rowena Robinson and Sathianathan Clarke (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2003), 98–118; Laura Dudley Jenkins, Religious Freedom and Mass Conversion in India (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2019), chapter 1.

79 F. Edwards to Alden Clark/secretaries ABCFM, 27 July 1931, 2–6, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1., v. 46.

80 Ibid., 2.

81 Cit. in Jenness, The Orient Steps Out, 61.

82 Lalsangkima Pachuau, ‘A Clash of ‘Mass Movements’? Christian Missions and the Gandhian Nationalist Movement in India,’ Transformation 31, no. 3 (2014): 157–74; Jenkins, Religious Freedom and Mass Conversion, chapter 1; Hopkins, John R. Mott, 671.

83 J.F. Edwards to Alden Clark/secretaries ABCFM, 27 July 1931, 3, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1., v. 46. Cf. Oddie, ‘Indian Christians and National Identity,’ 361.

84 K.K. Chaudhari, ed., Source Material for a History of Freedom Movement, Vol. XI: Civil Disobedience Movement, April–September 1930 (Bombay: Government of Maharashtra, 1990), 176f., 266f., 279, 431, 490.

85 Wright, Under Malabar Hill, 72f.

86 R.S. Sugirtharajah, Jesus in Asia (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2018), 143–66.

87 IMC, Report of the Jerusalem Meeting, Vol. I, 383.

88 Ibid.

89 Devdutt Tilak to R.E. Hume, 31 July 1931, 6, ABCFMA, ABC 77.1, Biographical Collection, Box 7: Tilak, Mr and Mrs Narayan V.

90 Clifford Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers in India (Bombay: Lalvani Publishing House, 1967), 11.

91 Ibid., 8.

92 Nagpada Neighbourhood House, various annual reports, 1928–1938, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 39 and 45.

93 C. Manshardt to W.E. Strong, 2 August 1929, 2, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 42.

94 ‘Nagpada Neighbourhood House Completes First Year of Service,’ February 1928, 4, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 39.

95 C. Manshardt to W.E. Strong, 20 September 1929, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 42.

96 C. Manshardt to Alden H. Clark, 8 December 1931, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 46.

97 Hocking, Re-Thinking Missions, 269f.

98 Orville A. Petty, ed., Laymen’s Foreign Missions Inquiry, Supplementary Series, Vol. IV: Fact-Finders’ Report: India-Burma (New York/London: Harper & Bros., 1932), 153.

99 Clifford Manshardt, Facing Facts in Nagpada: An Illustration of the Technique of the Social Survey (Bombay: Nagpada Neighbourhood House, 1928), foreword.

100 Id., The Social Settlement as an Educational Factor in India (Calcutta: Association Press, 1931).

101 J.F. Edwards to Alden H. Clark, 14 August 1931, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 46.

102 Alden H. Clark to J.F. Edwards, 17 September 1931, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 46.

103 Ibid.

104 Mina Carson, Settlement Folk: Social Thought and the American Settlement Movement, 1885–1930 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Robert Hamilton, ‘Social Settlement Houses: The Educated Women of Glasgow and Chicago,’ in Britain and Transnational Progressivism, edited by David W. Gutzke (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

105 Tilak, ‘Further Openings for Social Work,’ 155.

106 John Glasby, Poverty and Opportunity: 100 Years of the Birmingham Settlement (Studley: Brewin Books, 1999).

107 Hamilton, ‘Social Settlement Houses,’ 185–214.

108 Konomi Imai, ‘The Women’s Movement and the Settlement Movement in Early Twentieth-Century Japan: The Impact of Hull House and Jane Addams on Hiratsuka Raichō,’ Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review 17 (2012): 85–109.

109 Joyce E. Williams and Vicky M. Maclean, ‘In Search of the Kingdom: The Social Gospel, Settlement Sociology, and the Science of Reform in America’s Progressive Era,’ Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 48, no. 4 (2012): 339–62, here 349; Greek, The Religious Roots. For a case study, cf. Elizabeth N. Agnew, From Charity to Social Work: Mary E. Richmond and the Creation of an American Profession (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2004).

110 Williams/Maclean, ‘In Search of the Kingdom,’ 349.

111 Manako Ogawa, ‘ʼHull-House’ in Downtown Tokyo: The Transplantation of a Settlement House from the United States into Japan and the North American Missionary Women, 1919–1945,’ Journal of World History 15, no. 3 (2004): 359–87.

112 ‘Nagpada Neighbourhood House Completes First Year of Service,’ February 1928, 2, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 39.

113 For example, ‘The Nagpada Neighbourhood House in 1935: 9th Year of Work,’ ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 45.

114 Clifford Manshardt, ‘Converts or Co-Operation: A Study in Modern Missions,’ Journal of Religion 8, no. 2 (1928): 204–11, here 210.

115 Id., ‘What Will Succeed Religious Imperialism?,’ Journal of Religion 12, no. 4 (1932): 526–43, here 535.

116 Id., ‘Some Observations on Mission Policies in India,’ Journal of Religion 9, no. 2 (1929): 291–96, here 293.

117 Id., ‘What Will Succeed Religious Imperialism?,’ 536.

118 Manshardt, ‘Some Observations on Mission Policies in India,’ 296.

119 Id., ‘What Will Succeed Religious Imperialism?,’ 528.

120 Ibid., 535.

121 Chandra Mallampalli, Christians and Public Life in South India, 1863–1937: Contending with Marginality (London/New York: Routledge Curzon, 2004), 99.

122 Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers, 9ff.

123 ‘The Nagpada Neighbourhood House: Report of the Sixth Year of Work,’ October 1933, 4f., ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, v. 45.

124 C. Manshardt to ABCFM, 6 October 1934, ABCFMA, ABC 16.1.1, Biographical Collection, Box 48: Manshardt Mr and Mrs Clifford.

125 ‘Report by Clifford Manshardt for the establishment of TISS,’ 27, Tata Central Archives [TCA], Pune, Box 198, DTT/PHIL/TISS/FP/4.

126 Mircea Raianu, The Incorporation of India: The Tata Business Firm Between Empire and Nation, ca. 1860–1970 (PhD diss., Harvard University, Cambridge MA, 2017), 119–49.

127 Clifford Manshardt, ‘Education for Social Work,’ Indian Journal of Social Work 2, no. 1 (1941): 12–22; J.M. Kumarappa, ‘Social Work: A Profession in the Making,’ Indian Review 42, no. 6 (1941): 346–9; Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers, 84f. A.S. Desai, ‘Foundations of Social Work Education in India and Some Issues,’ Indian Journal of Social Work 46, no. 1 (1985): 41–57.

128 Manshardt, ‘Education for Social Work,’ 16.

129 Ibid., 15–22; id., ‘Education and Social Change,’ Indian Journal of Social Work 1, no. 2 (1940): 237–44; Kumarappa, ‘Social Work: A Profession in the Making’; Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers, 86ff.

130 C. Manshardt to the Trustees of the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust, 15 May 1935, TCA, Box 199, DTT/PHIL/TISS/Mis/1.

131 K.S. Mandal, ‘American Influence on Social Work Education in India and Its Impact,’ International Social Work 32, no. 4 (1989): 303–10; Vimla V. Nadkarni and Sandra Joseph, ‘Envisioning a Professional Identity: Charting Pathways Through Social Work Education in India,’ in Global Social Work, edited by Noble/Strauss/Littlechild, 71–83.

132 Desai, ‘Foundations of Social Work Education in India,’ 48ff.; Mandal, ‘American Influence on Social Work Education,’ 305ff.

133 Mandal, ‘American Influence on Social Work Education,’ 306; Nadkarni/Joseph, ‘Envisioning a Professional Identity,’ 71ff.; Denzil Saldanha, ‘Towards a Conceptualisation of Social Action within Social Work: Teaching Social Action as a Dialogue Between Theoretical Perspectives and Between Theory and Practice,’ Indian Journal of Social Work 69, no. 2 (2008): 111–37; P.D. Kulkarni, ‘The Indigenous-base of Social Work Profession in India,’ Indian Journal of Social Work 54, no. 4 (1993): 555–65.

134 Manshardt, ‘Education for Social Work,’ 16.

135 Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers, 8.

136 Doreen Elliott and Uma A. Segal, ‘International Social Work,’ in Comprehensive Handbook of Social Work and Social Welfare, Volume I: The Profession of Social Work, edited by K. M. Sowers, C. N. Dulmus and B. W. White (Hoboken: Wiley, 2008), 343–76.

137 Mark Thomas Edwards, The Right of the Protestant Left: God’s Totalitarianism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 72.

138 On similar examples of Cold War U.S. foreign aid and development policy in so-called ‘developing’ countries, cf. John H. Perkins, Geopolitics and the Green Revolution: Wheat, Genes, and the Cold War (New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Nick Cullather, The Hungry World: America’s Cold War Battle Against Poverty in Asia (Cambridge/London: Harvard University Press, 2010); Michael E. Latham, The Right Kind of Revolution: Modernization, Development, and U.S. Foreign Policy from the Cold War to the Present (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2011).

139 Hans Nagpaul, ‘The Diffusion of American Social Work Education to India,’ International Social Work 15, no. 1 (1972): 3–17; Kwaku Osei-Hwedie and Morena J. Rankopo, ‘Globalization and culturally relevant social work: African perspectives on indigenization,’ International Social Work 54, no. 137 (2011): 137–47; Mel Gray, ‘Dilemmas of international social work: Paradoxical processes in indigenisation, universalism and imperialism,’ International Journal of Social Welfare 14, no. 3 (2005): 231–8.

140 For example, The Journalist 3, no. 6 (1941), 1, ABCFMA, ABC 77.1, Biographical Collection, Box 48.

141 Manshardt, ‘What Will Succeed Religious Imperialism?,’ 543.

142 Kallaway, ‘Education, Health and Social Welfare,’ 245.

143 Hollinger, Protestants Abroad, 252–65.

144 Manshardt, Pioneering on Social Frontiers.

145 Cf. Thompson, For God and Globe.

146 Nandini Chatterjee, The Making of Indian Secularism. Empire, Law and Christianity, 1830–1960 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), 4–14.

147 Charles Taylor, A Secular Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 21.