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³ Pain, Rachel, ‘Place, Social Relations and the Fear of Crime: A Review’, Progress in Human Geography, 24: 3 (2000), pp. 365–87CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴ Pain, ‘Place, Social Relations and the Fear of Crime’.

⁵ Bromley, Rosemary, Tallon, Andrew and Thomas, Colin, ‘Disaggregating the Space: Time Layers of City Centre Activities and Their Users’, Environment and Planning A, 35 (2003), pp. 1831–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶ I follow Punch, who argues for shifting our descriptions of different categories of development, population, poverty, land mass and lifestyles, and adopting the terms ‘majority world’ (for the ‘third world’) and ‘minority world’ (for the ‘first world’). See Samantha Punch, ‘Children's Strategies for Creating Playspaces: Negotiating Independence in Rural Bolivia’, in Sarah Holloway and Gill Valentine (eds.), Children's Geographies: Playing, Living, Learning (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2000), pp. 51–2.

⁷ Pain, ‘Youth, Age and the Representation of Fear’.

⁸ Hugh Matthews, Melanie Limb and Mark Taylor, ‘The “Street as Third Space”’, in Holloway and Valentine (eds.), Children's Geographies, pp. 63–79; Robinson, Cara, ‘“Nightscapes and Leisure Spaces”: An Ethnographic Study of Young People's Use of Free Space’, Journal of Youth Studies, 12: 5 (2009), pp. 501–14CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gill Valentine, Tracey Skelton and Deborah Chambers, ‘Cool Places²²: An Introduction to Youth and Youth Cultures’, in Tracey Skelton and Gill Valentine (eds.), Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Cultures (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), pp. 1–32.

⁹ Valentine, Gill, ‘Angels and Devils: Moral Landscapes of Childhood’, Environment and Planning D, 14 (1996), pp. 581–99CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁰ Matthews, Limb and Taylor, ‘The “Street as Third Space”’.

¹¹ Ibid.; Hugh Matthews, ‘The Street as Liminal Space: The Barbed Spaces of Childhood’, in Pia Christensen and Margaret O'Brien (eds.), Children in the City: Home, Neighbourhood and Community (Abingdon and New York: Routledge, 2003), pp. 101–17; Robinson, ‘“Nightscapes and Leisure Spaces”’.

¹² Cresswell, Tim, In Place/Out of Place: Geography, Ideology, and Transgression (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, 1996)Google Scholar; Holloway, Lewis and Hubbard, Phil, People and Place: The Extraordinary Geographies of Everyday Life (Essex: Pearson Education, 2001)Google Scholar; David Sibley, ‘Families and Domestic Routines: Constructing the Boundaries of Childhood’, in Steve Pile and Nigel Thrift (eds.), Mapping the Subject (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 114–27; Young, Lorraine, ‘The “Place” of Street Children in Kampala, Uganda: Marginalisation, Resistance, and Acceptance in the Urban Environment’, Environment and Planning D, 21 (2003), pp. 607–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹³ Valentine, Skelton and Chambers, ‘Cool Places’; Sarah Holloway and Gill Valentine, ‘Children's Geographies and the New Social Studies of Childhood’, in Holloway and Valentine (eds.), Children's Geographies, pp. 1–28; Pain, ‘Gender, Race, Age and Fear’.

¹⁴ Cobbina, Jennifer, Miller, Jody and Brunson, Rod, ‘Gender, Neighbourhood Danger, and Risk Avoidance Strategies among Urban African American Youth’, Criminology, 46: 3 (2008), pp. 145–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Pain, ‘Youth, Age and the Representation of Fear’; Pain, ‘Gender, Race, Age and Fear in the City’; Cobbina, Miller and Brunson, ‘Gender, Neighbourhood Danger, and Risk Avoidance Strategies’.

¹⁶ Paul Watt and Kevin Stenson, ‘The Street: “It's a Bit Dodgy around Here”’, in Skelton and Valentine (eds.), Cool Places, pp. 249–65.

¹⁷ Ennew, Judith and Swart-Kruger, Jill, ‘Introduction: Homes, Places and Spaces in the Construction of Street Children and Street Youth’, Children, Youth and Environments, 13: 1 (2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, available at http://colorado.edu/journals/cye.

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²⁰ Nancy Scheper-Hughes and David Hoffman, ‘Kids Out of Place’ (1994), available at http://pangaea.org/street_children/latin/sheper.htm; Panter-Brick, Catherine, ‘Homelessness, Poverty, and Risks to Health: Beyond At Risk Categorizations of Street Children’, Children's Geographies, 2: 1 (2004), pp. 83–94CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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²² Young, ‘The “Place” of Street Children in Kampala’.

²³ Harriot Beazley, ‘Street Boys in Yogyakarta: Social and Spatial Exclusion in the Public Spaces of the City’, in Gary Bridge and Sophie Watson (eds.), A Companion to the City (Malden, MA, and Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), pp. 472–488; Scheper-Hughes and Hoffman, ‘Kids Out of Place’; Alves, Paola, Infância, tempo e atividades cotidianas de crianças em situação de rua (Rio Grande do Sul: Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, 2002)Google Scholar, available at www.msmidia.com/ceprua/Espanhol/paola_doutorado.pdf; Ennew and Swart-Kruger, ‘Introduction’.

²⁴ Blerk, Lorraine Van, ‘Negotiating Spatial Identities: Mobile Perspectives on Street Life in Uganda’, Children's Geographies, 3: 1 (2005), pp. 5–21CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Butler, ‘Freedom, Revolt and “Citizenship”’; Ursin, Marit, ‘“Wherever I Lay My Head Is Home”: Young People's Experience of Home in the Brazilian Street Environment’, Children's Geographies, 9: 2 (2011), pp. 221–34CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Young, ‘The “Place” of Street Children in Kampala’.

²⁵ Márquez, Patricia, The Street is My Home: Youth and Violence in Caracas (Stanford, CA: Stanford University, 1999)Google Scholar; Hecht, Tobias, At Home in the Street: Street Children of Northeastern Brazil (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Young, ‘The “Place” of Street Children in Kampala’.

²⁶ Pain, ‘Gender, Race, Age and Fear’.

²⁷ Davis in Pain, ‘Place, Social Relations and the Fear of Crime’; Gaetz, ‘Safe Streets for Whom?’.

²⁸ Kipke, Michele, Simon, Thomas, Montgomery, Susanne, Unger, Jennifer and Iversen, Ellen, ‘Homeless Youth and Their Exposure to and Involvement in Violence while Living on the Streets’, Journal of Adolescent Health, 20: 5 (1997), pp. 360–67CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

²⁹ Gaetz, ‘Safe Streets for Whom?’.

³⁰ Ibid.

³¹ Pain, ‘Youth, Age and the Representation of Fear’.

³² Elisa Reis, ‘Perceptions of Poverty and Inequality among Brazilian Elites’, in Elisa Reis and Mick Moore (eds.), Elite Perceptions of Poverty and Inequality (London and New York: Zed Books, 2005), pp. 26–56.

³³ Paes de Barros, Ricardo, Henriques, Ricardo and Mendonça, Rosane, ‘Desigualdade e pobreza no Brasil: retrato de uma estabilidade inaceitável’, Revista Brasileira de Ciências Sociais, 15: 42 (2000) pp. 123–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁴ Caldeira, Teresa, City of Walls: Crime, Segregation, and Citizenship in São Paulo (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gough, Katherine and Franch, Monica, ‘Spaces of the Street: Socio-spatial Mobility and Exclusion of Youth in Recife’, Children's Geographies, 3: 2 (2005), pp. 149–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁵ Ibid.

³⁶ Ennew and Swart-Kruger, ‘Introduction’.

³⁷ Gough and Franch, ‘Spaces of the Street’; Harriot Beazley, ‘The Construction and Protection of Individual and Collective Identities by Street Children and Youth in Indonesia’, Children, Youth and Environments, 13: 1 (2003), available at http://colorado.edu/journals/cye.

³⁸ Ensign, Josephine, ‘Ethical Issues in Qualitative Health Research with Homeless Youths’, Journal of Advanced Nursing, 43: 1 (2003), pp. 43–50CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed.

³⁹ I did not manage to interview all of my main informants during fieldwork in 2005 because some of them had been imprisoned or killed, or had disappeared.

⁴⁰ Ensign, ‘Ethical Issues in Qualitative Health Research’.

⁴¹ Abebe, Tatek, ‘Multiple Methods, Complex Dilemmas: Negotiating Socio-ethical Spaces in Participatory Research with Disadvantaged Children’, Children's Geographies, 7: 4 (2009), pp. 451–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴² Mark Warren, ‘Introduction’, in Warren (ed.), Democracy and Trust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), pp. 1–21.

⁴³ See Abebe, ‘Multiple Methods, Complex Dilemmas’.

⁴⁴ Massey, Doreen, For Space (London: Sage, 2005)Google Scholar.

⁴⁵ A Tarde, 1 Jan. 2009.

⁴⁶ ‘Vagabundo’ literally means a homeless person or vagrant. The local meaning also refers to persons who are lazy and/or prefer illegal sources of income to honest working.

⁴⁷ Tourists also occasionally create legal money opportunities, such as guiding, but more often present illegal opportunities, principally drug dealing and prostitution.

⁴⁸ See Ursin, ‘“Wherever I Lay My Head Is Home”’.

⁴⁹ Young, ‘The “Place” of Street Children in Kampala’.

⁵⁰ At the time, R$ 35,000 was equivalent to approximately US$ 19,750.

⁵¹ Pelourinho is the historical centre of Salvador. Investors and politicians rediscovered the poor neighbourhood in the 1990s. It was completely renovated and gentrified. Since then its night life has blossomed.

⁵² The song text is based on my field notes of Thiago's adaptation of the song The City is Ours. The original version is performed by Facção Central on the album Versos sangrentos (1999).

⁵³ Anderson, Elijah, Streetwise: Race, Class, and Change in an Urban Community (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1990)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁴ Eric Uslaner, ‘Democracy and Social Capital’, in Warren (ed.), Democracy and Trust, pp. 121–50.

⁵⁵ Cahill, Caitlin, ‘Street Literacy: Urban Teenagers’ Strategies for Negotiating Their Neighbourhood’, Journal of Youth Studies, 3: 3 (2000), pp. 251–77CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁶ Koskela, Hille, ‘“Bold Walks and Breakings”: Women's Spatial Confidence versus Fear of Violence’, Gender, Place and Culture, 4: 3 (1997), pp. 301–19CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵⁷ Ibid.

⁵⁸ Hille Koskela, ‘Crime/Fear of Crime’, in Rob Kitchin and Nigel Thrift (eds.), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009); Uslander, ‘Democracy and Social Capital’.

⁵⁹ Winton, Ailsa, ‘Youth, Gangs and Violence: Analysing the Social and Spatial Mobility of Young People in Guatemala City’, Children's Geographies, 3: 2 (2005), pp. 167–84CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁶⁰ Caldeira, City of Walls.

⁶¹ Pain, ‘Gender, Race, Age and Fear’.

⁶² Claus Offe, ‘How Can We Trust Our Fellow Citizens?’, in Warren (ed.), Democracy and Trust, pp. 42–87.

⁶³ Koskela, ‘Crime/Fear of Crime’.

⁶⁴ Luiz Eduardo Soares, MV Bill and Celso Athayde, Cabeça do porco (Rio de Janeiro: Objetiva, 2005).

⁶⁵ Offe, ‘How Can We Trust Our Fellow Citizens?’; Uslaner, ‘Democracy and Social Capital’.

⁶⁶ Ursin, ‘“Wherever I Lay My Head Is Home”’.

⁶⁷ Offe, ‘How Can We Trust Our Fellow Citizens?’.

⁶⁸ Ibid.

⁶⁹ Ibid.

⁷⁰ Warren, ‘Introduction’.

⁷¹ Offe, ‘How Can We Trust Our Fellow Citizens?’.

⁷² Uslaner, ‘Democracy and Social Capital’.

⁷³ Pain, ‘Place, Social Relations and the Fear of Crime’.

⁷⁴ Anderson, Streetwise.

⁷⁵ Uslaner, ‘Democracy and Social Capital’.

⁷⁶ Pain, ‘Youth, Age and the Representation of Fear’.