Hostname: page-component-5c6d5d7d68-thh2z Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-08-08T14:23:48.289Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Stigma and the Structure of Title IX Compliance

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  01 January 2021

Abstract

This article analyzes the relationship between the structure of federal Title IX investigations and the existing evidence addressing the emotional and mental health needs of sexual harassment and sexual assault victims. The article argues that federal requirements for investigating sexual harassment should be restructured so as to address the challenges stigma poses for the realization of Title IX's objectives.

Type
Symposium Articles
Copyright
Copyright © American Society of Law, Medicine and Ethics 2017

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

National Sexual Violence Resource Center, Statistics About Sexual Violence: Info & Stats For Journalists (2015).Google Scholar
American Association of University Women, Know Your Rights: Workplace Sexual Harassment, available at <http://www.aauw.org/what-we-do/legal-resources/know-your-rights-at-work/workplace-sexual-harassment/> (last visited February 18, 2017).+(last+visited+February+18,+2017).>Google Scholar
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, Women in the American Workforce, available at <https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc/statistics/reports/american_experiences/women.cfm> (last visited February 18, 2017).+(last+visited+February+18,+2017).>Google Scholar
National Sexual Violence Resource Center, supra note 1.Google Scholar
Miller, A., Canales, E., Amacker, A., Backstrom, T., and Gidycz, C., “Stigma-Threat Motivated Nondisclosure of Sexual Assault and Sexual Revictimization: A Prospective Analysis,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 35, no. 1 (2011): 119-128, at 120; Fisher, B., Daigle, L., Cullen, F., and Turner, M., “Reporting Sexual Victimization to the Police and Others,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 30, no. 1 (2003): 6–38, at 26; Fisher, B., Cullen, F, Turner, M, The Sexual Victimization of College Women: Findings from Two National-Level Studies (Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice and Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2000).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Public Law No. 92 318, 86 Stat. 235 (June 23, 1972), codified at 20 U.S.C. §§ 1681–1688, renamed the Patsy Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act in 2002. For regulations specific to equality in athletics see 34 C.F.R. 106.41, comparable facilities at 34 C.F.R. 106.33, and financial assistance at 34 C.F.R. 106.37.Google Scholar
AAUP, The History, Uses, and Abuses of Title IX, June 2016: at 71.Google Scholar
Toporek, B., “Most College Presidents Believe Sports Scandals Taint Higher Ed.,” Education Week, March 16, 2012.Google Scholar
Anderson, M., “Campus Assault Adjudication and Resistance to Reform,” Yale Law Journal 125, no. 7 (2016): 1820-2181, at 1940.Google Scholar
Kingkade, T., “There Are Far More Title IX Investigations of Colleges Than Most People Know,” The Huffington Post, June 16, 2016.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Civil Rights, Recent Resolutions, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/index.html?exp=7#title9rev> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Konradi, A., “A Strategy for Increasing Post-Rape Medical Care and Forensic Examination — Marketing Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners to the College Population,” Violence Against Women 9, no. 8 (2003): 955-988.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wong, A., “Why the Prevalence of Campus Sexual Assault is So Hard to Quantify,” The Atlantic, January 26, 2016; Kilpatrick, D. G. and Ruggiero, K. J., “Making Sense of Rape in America: Where Do the Numbers Come From and What Do They Mean?” Violence Against Women NET, 2004, available at <http://vawnet.org/material/making-sense-rape-america-where-do-numbers-come-and-what-do-they-mean> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Krebs, C. P., Lindquist, C. H., Warner, T. D., Fisher, B. S., Martin, S. L., The Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) Study, U.S. Department of Justice, December 2007.Google Scholar
University of Michigan, Results of 2015 University of Michigan Campus Climate Survey on Sexual Misconduct (2015) available at <https://publicaffairs.vpcomm.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2015/04/Complete-survey-results.pdf> (last visited November 2, 2017); Rutgers School of Social Work, Campus Climate Surveys: Lessons Learned from the Rutgers-New Brunswick Pilot Assessment (2015); New, J., “Differing Definitions,” Inside Higher Ed, September 2, 2015.+(last+visited+November+2,+2017);+Rutgers+School+of+Social+Work,+Campus+Climate+Surveys:+Lessons+Learned+from+the+Rutgers-New+Brunswick+Pilot+Assessment+(2015);+New,+J.,+“Differing+Definitions,”+Inside+Higher+Ed,+September+2,+2015.>Google Scholar
American Association of University Women, 91 Percent of Colleges Reported Zero Incidents of Rape in 2014 (2015) available at <http://www.aauw.org/article/clery-act-data-analysis/> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Rennison, C. and Addington, L., “Violence Against College Women,” Trauma, Violence and Abuse 15, no. 3 (2014): 159-169.Google Scholar
Fisher, B. S., Daigle, L. E., Cullen, F. T., Turner, M. G., “Reporting Sexual Victimization to the Police and Others,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 30, no. 1 (2003): 6-38, at 7. The other is Koss, M. P., “Hidden Rape: Sexual Aggression and Victimization in a National Sample of Students in Higher Education” in Burgess, A. W. (ed.), Rape and Sexual Assault (New York, NY: Garland 1988): 3–25.Google Scholar
Fisher, Daigle, Cullen, and Turner, supra note 5.Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, L. F., Swan, S., and Fischer, K., “Why Didn’t She Just Report Him? The Psychological and Legal Implications of Women’s Responses to Sexual Harassment,” Journal of Social Issues 51, no. 1 (1995): 117-138.Google Scholar
Felson, R. B. and Paré, P., “The Reporting of Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault by Nonstrangers to the Police,” Journal of Marriage and Family 67, no. 3 (2005): 597-610.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fitzgerald, Swan, and Fischer, supra note 20, at 122.Google Scholar
Dukes, R. L. and Mattley, C. L., “Predicting Rape Victim Report-age” Sociology & Social Research 62, no. 3 (1977): 63-84; Campbell, R., Townsend, S., and Long, S.. et al., “Responding to Sexual Assault Victims’ Medical Emotional Needs: A National Study of the Services Provided by SANE Programs,” Research in Nursing & Health 29 no. 5 (2006): 384–398.Google Scholar
Sanday, P., A Woman Scorned: Acquaintance Rape on Trial (Berkeley: University of California Press 1986); Konradi, A., Taking the Stand: Rape Survivors and the Prosecution of Rapists 259 (Westport, CT: Praeger 2007).Google Scholar
Konradi, , supra note 24.Google Scholar
Fisher, , supra note 18, at 26.Google Scholar
Id. at 11.Google Scholar
Sable, M. R., Danis, F., Mauzy, D. L., Gallagher, S. K., “Barriers to Reporting Sexual Assault for Women and Men: Perspectives of College Students,” Journal of American College Health 55, no. 3 (2006): 159-162.Google Scholar
Matosian, G. M., Reproducing Rape (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993).Google Scholar
Fisher, et al., supra note 17, at 11.Google Scholar
Campbell, R. and Raja, S., “The Secondary Victimization of Rape Victims: Insights From Mental Health Professionals who Treat Survivors of Violence,” Violence and Victims 14, no. 3 (1999): 261275.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, R., “The Psychological Impact of Rape Victims’ Experiences With the Legal, Medical, and Mental Health Systems,” American Psychologist 63, no. 8 (2008): 702-717.Google Scholar
Felson, and Paré, , supra note 21, at 599.Google Scholar
Fisher, et. al., supra note 18, at 26.Google Scholar
Williams, L. S., “The Classic Rape: When do Victims Report?” Social Problems 31, no. 4 (1984): 459–67, at 460.Google Scholar
Felson, and Paré, , supra note 21, at 604.Google Scholar
Id. at 607.Google Scholar
Fisher, et al., supra note 18, at 14.Google Scholar
Kuznitz, A., “Penn State Working to Reduce Stigma Around Sexual Assault Reporting,” Centre Daily (Jan. 17, 2017).Google Scholar
Fisher, et al., supra note 18, at 14.Google Scholar
Sylaska, K. M. and Edwards, K. M., “Disclosure of Intimate Partner Violence to Informal Social Support Network Members: A Review of the Literature,” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse 15, no. 1 (2013): 321.Google Scholar
Id. See also McCart, R. M., Smith, D. W., and Sawyer, G. K., “Help Seeking Among Victims of Crime: A Review of the Empirical Literature,” Journal of Traumatic Stress 23, no. 2 (2010): 23, 198–206; Mahlstedt, D., and Keeny, L., “Female Survivors of Dating Violence and their Social Networks,” Feminism & Psychology 3, no. 3 (2003): 319–333.Google Scholar
Sylaska and Edwards, supra note 47.Google Scholar
Goodkind, J. R., Gillum, T. L., Bybee, D. I., and Sullivan, C. M., “The Impact of Family and Friends’ Reactions on the Well-Being of Women with Abusive Partners,” Violence Against Women 9, no. 3 (2003): 347373.Google Scholar
Kuznitz, supra note 44; Alvarez, Ana, “Sexual Assault Potentially Underreported Due to Stigma, Report Suggests,” Brown Daily Herald (Oct. 25, 2010).Google Scholar
Sable, et al., supra note 29.Google Scholar
Hayes-Smith, R. M. and Levett, M., “Student Perceptions of Sexual Assault Resources and Prevalence of Rape Myth Attitudes,” Feminist Criminology 5, no. 4 (2010): 335354.Google Scholar
Garcia, C. M., Lechner, K. E., Frerich, E. A., Lust, A. K. and Eisenberg, M. E., “Preventing Sexual Violence Instead of Just Responding To It: Students’ Perceptions of Sexual Violence Resources on Campus,” Journal of Forensic Nursing 8 (2012): 6171; Walsh, A. W., Banyard, V. L., Moynihan, M. M., Ward, S. and Cohen, E. S., “Disclosure and Service Use on a College Campus after an Unwanted Sexual Experience,” Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 11, no. 2 (2010): 134–151.Google Scholar
Littleton, H. L., “The Impact of Social Support and Negative Disclosure Reactions on Sexual Assault Victims: A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Investigation,” Journal of Trauma & Dissociation 11, no. 2 (2010): 210227.Google Scholar
Sable, et al., supra note 29.Google Scholar
Letter from Russlyn Ali, Assistant Sec’y for Civil Rights, Office for Civil Rights, U.S. Dep’t of Educ., to Title IX Coordinators 2 (Apr. 4, 2011) [hereinafter Dear Colleague Letter], available at <http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-201104.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Campus Safety, Obama Administration Warns Schools to Follow Sex Crimes Protocol, April 5, 2011, available at <http://www.campussafetymagazine.com/article/Obama-Administration-Kicks-Off-Sexual-Violence-Awareness-Effort#> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
NCAA, Title IX Frequently Asked Questions, available at <http://www.ncaa.org/about/resources/inclusion/title-ix-frequently-asked-questions> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Kingcade, T., “There Are Far More Title IX Investigations of Colleges than People Know,” The Huffington Post, June 16, 2016 available at <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/title-ix-investigations-sexual-harassment_us_575f4b0ee4b053d433061b3d> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
The Chronicle of Higher Education, Title IX Tracker, available at <http://projects.chronicle.com/titleix/> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 5.Google Scholar
Smith, G. M. and Gomez, L. M., Effective Implementation of the Institutional Response to Sexual Misconduct under Title IX and Related Guidance (2013) available at <http://www.higheredcompliance.org/resources/resources/05D_13-06-38.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 7.Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Education Title IX Resource Guide, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/dcl-title-ix-coordinators-guide-201504.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 15.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 7.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 15.Google Scholar
Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Yale University, Complaint No. 01-11-2027 available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/01112027-a.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Tufts University, Complaint No. 01-10-2089 available at <https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/tufts-university-agreement.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Notre Dame College, Complaint No. 15-09-6001, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/15096001-b.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Ohio State University, OCR Docket No. 15-10-6002, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/ohio-state-agreement.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 7-8.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 16.Google Scholar
Id. at 15.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 5.Google Scholar
Montana Voluntary Resolution Agreement, supra note 72.Google Scholar
Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Eastern Michigan University, Docket No. 15-09-6002, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/15096002-a.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017); Voluntary Resolution Agreement, Harvard Law School, Docket No. 01-11-2002, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/harvard-law-agreement.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017); Voluntary Resolution Agreement, State University of New York, Docket No. 02-11-6001, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/documents/press-releases/sunynew-york-agreement.doc> (last visited November 3, 2017); Resolution Agreement, University of Notre Dame, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/05072011-b.pdf> (last visited November 3, 2017); Voluntary Resolution Agreement, George Washington University, available at <https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/investigations/11112079-b.html> (last visited November 3, 2017).+(last+visited+November+3,+2017);+Voluntary+Resolution+Agreement,+Harvard+Law+School,+Docket+No.+01-11-2002,+available+at++(last+visited+November+3,+2017);+Voluntary+Resolution+Agreement,+State+University+of+New+York,+Docket+No.+02-11-6001,+available+at++(last+visited+November+3,+2017);+Resolution+Agreement,+University+of+Notre+Dame,+available+at++(last+visited+November+3,+2017);+Voluntary+Resolution+Agreement,+George+Washington+University,+available+at++(last+visited+November+3,+2017).>Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 8.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 4.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 9.Google Scholar
Id. at 12.Google Scholar
Id. at 10.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 12.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 12.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 22-23.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 11.Google Scholar
Id. at 12.Google Scholar
Smith, and Gomez, , supra note 67, at 22-23.Google Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 5.Google Scholar
Id. at 15.Google Scholar
Konradi, A., “‘Can Justice Be Served on Campus’ An Examination of Due Process and Victim Protection Policies in the Campus Adjudication of Sexual Assault in Maryland,” Humanity & Society 13, no. 3 (2016): 1-32.Google Scholar
Puzio, A. and Konradi, A., “How Confident are Confidants: Assessing the Sexual Assault Related Resource Knowledge of College Students” Journal of Campus Title IX Compliance and Best Practice 2 (2016): 20-31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasta, A., Shah, B., Bhahmanandam, S., Richman, K., Wittels, K., Allsworth, L. and Boardman, L., “Sexual Victimization: Incidence, Knowledge and Resource use Among a Population of College Women,” Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology 18, no. 2 (2005): 18, 91-96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dear Colleague Letter, supra note 59, at 5.Google Scholar
Id. at 15.Google Scholar
The Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security Policy and Campus Crime Statistics Act or Clery Act, signed in 1990, is a federal statute codified at 20 U.S.C. § 1092(f), with implementing regulations in the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations at 34 C.F.R. 668.46).Google Scholar
Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013 (VAWA) (Pub. L. 113-4).Google Scholar
Sokolow, B. A., “Mandatory Reporting for Title IX: Keep it Simple,” Chronicle of Higher Education, Sept. 23, 2013.Google Scholar