Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-s2hrs Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T13:47:33.522Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Understanding the elements and outcomes of executive wisdom: A strategic approach

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 October 2013

Robert W Kolodinsky  and
Paul E Bierly
Robert W Kolodinsky*
Affiliation:
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, USA
Paul E Bierly
Affiliation:
James Madison University, Harrisonburg, VA, USA
*
Corresponding author: kolodirw@jmu.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to: (a) offer rationale for the importance of an increasingly important organizational management topic – the wisdom of top managers – what we call executive wisdom; (b) develop a theoretical framework for the construct, including core components and outcomes, and (c) provide implications for practice. The research in several related literatures is reviewed and synthesized to provide the foundation for the development of this theoretical framework. Applying the extant literature on wisdom to the specific context of a top-level business manager, we argue that there are four foundational characteristics of executive wisdom: (1) Knowledge, developed by prior learning and experience, (2) moral maturity, (3) reflective strategic decision-making, and (4) ability to manage uncertainty. Executives possessing such characteristics are: (a) able to make enlightened strategic judgments that are (b) implemented as principled actions. The effectiveness of such implementation is contingent upon, among other moderators, the executive's leadership skills. We view each of the characteristics as necessary but not sufficient to possess and benefit from executive wisdom. The principled actions undertaken by those possessing executive wisdom will, when compared to other executives, have a greater likelihood of leading to valued outcomes indicative of organizational effectiveness, including enhanced stakeholder trust and loyalty, reputational capital, and stronger financial and social performance. We believe that the main arguments developed in this paper will help improve managers’ understanding of how to become a wise executive and to realize the benefits of doing so. From a theory perspective, this paper adds to the growing body of literature in a new and increasingly valued area of research.

Keywords

wisdomknowledgelearningleadershipdecision-makingorganizational effectiveness
Type
Conceptual article
Information
Journal of Management & Organization , Volume 19 , Issue 1 , January 2013 , pp. 1 - 24
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press and Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

✠

Deceased.

It is with profound sadness that my good friend, wonderful colleague, and co-author, Paul Bierly, passed away in July 2013, after a decade-long battle with cancer.

References

Alsop, R. J. (2004). The 18 immutable laws of corporate reputation: Creating, protecting, and preparing your most valuable asset. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Ardelt, M. (2003). Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale. Research on Aging, 25(3), 275–324.Google Scholar
Avolio, B. J., Bass, B. M. (1995). Individual consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: A multi-framework for examining the diffusion of transformational leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 6, 188–218.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M. (1993). The search for a psychology of wisdom. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 75–80.Google Scholar
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Wisdom: A metaheuristic (pragmatic) to orchestrate mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psychologist, 55(1), 122–136.Google Scholar
Barna Research Online. (2002). Americans speak: Enron, WorldCom and others are result of inadequate moral training by families. Retrieved from http://www.barna.org/barna-update/article/5-barna-update/78-americans-speak-enron-worldcom-and-others-are-result-of-inadequate-moral-training-by-familiesGoogle Scholar
Barnard, C. I. (1938). The functions of the executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17, 99–119.Google Scholar
Barrick, M. R., Mount, M. K. (1991). The big five personality dimensions and job performance: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 44, 1–26.Google Scholar
Bartunek, J. M., Louis, M. R. (1988). The design of work environments to stretch managers’ capacities for complex thinking. Human Resources Planning, 16(7), 13–22.Google Scholar
Bartunek, J. M., Trullen, J. (2007). The virtue of prudence. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 91–108). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill's handbook of leadership: Theory, research, and managerial applications. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Bass, B. M., Steidlmeier, P. (1999). Ethics, character and authentic transformational leadership behavior. The Leadership Quarterly, 10, 181–218.Google Scholar
Bazerman, M. H., Tenbrunsel, A. E. (2011). Blind spots: Why we fail to do what's right and what to do about it. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Becker, B., Huselid, M. (1998). High performance work systems and firm performance: A synthesis of research and managerial implications. In G. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resource management (pp. 53–101). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Bennis, W. (1999). The leadership advantage. Leader to Leader, 12, 18–23.Google Scholar
Beyer, J. M., Nino, D. (1998). Facing the future: Backing courage with wisdom. In S. Srivastva & D. L. Cooperrider (Eds.), Organizational wisdom and executive courage (pp. 65–97). San Francisco, CA: The New Lexington Press.Google Scholar
Bierly, P. E., Gallagher, S. (2007). Explaining alliance partner selection: Fit, trust and strategic expediency. Long Range Planning, 40, 134–153.Google Scholar
Bierly, P. E., Kessler, E. H., Christensen, E. W. (2000). Organizational learning, knowledge, and wisdom. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 13, 596–618.Google Scholar
Bierly, P. E., Kolodinsky, R. W. (2007). Toward a wisdom-based approach to strategic management. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 61–88). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E., Fisher, L. M. (1990). The elements of wisdom: Overview and integration. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom – Its nature, origins and development (pp. 317–332). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Birren, J. E., Svensson, C. M. (2005). Wisdom in history. In R. J. Sternberg & J. Jordan (Eds.), A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp. 3–31). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Blattberg, R. C., Hoch, S. J. (1990). Database models and managerial intuition: 50% model +50% manager. Management Science, 36, 887–900.Google Scholar
Boal, K. B., Hooijberg, R. (2001). Strategic leadership research: Moving on. Leadership Quarterly, 11, 515–549.Google Scholar
Boyatzis, R. E. (2007). Emotional and social intelligence competencies are wisdom in practice. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 223–242). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Brewer, L., Chandler, R., Ferrell, O. C. (2006). Managing risks for corporate integrity: How to survive an ethical misconduct disaster. Mason, OH: Thomson.Google Scholar
Brown, S. C. (2004). Learning across campus: How college facilitates the development of wisdom. Journal of College Student Development, 45, 134–148.Google Scholar
Brugman, G. M. (2006). Wisdom and aging. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaie (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of aging (6th ed., pp. 445–476). Amsterdam, Netherlands: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Burleson, B. R., Caplan, S. E. (1998). Cognitive complexity. In J. C. McCroskey, J. A. Daly, M. M. Martin, & M. J. Beatty (Eds.), Communication and personality: Trait perspectives (pp. 233–286). Creskill, NJ: Hampton Press.Google Scholar
Callahan, D. (2004). The cheating culture: Why more Americans are doing wrong to get ahead. Orlando, FL: Harcourt.Google Scholar
Callahan, D. (2006). The moral center: How we can reclaim our country from die-hard extremists, rogue corporations, Hollywood hacks, and pretend patriots. Orlando, FL: Harcourt.Google Scholar
Cannella, A. A. Jr, Monroe, M. J. (1997). Contrasting perspectives on strategic leaders: Toward a more realistic view of top managers. Journal of Management, 23, 213–237.Google Scholar
Carter, J. (2005). Our endangered values: America's moral crisis. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Ching, C., Holsapple, C. W., Whinston, A. B. (1992). Reputation, learning, and coordination in distributed decision-making contexts. Organization Science, 3(2), 275–297.Google Scholar
Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Influence: Science and practice (Vol 4). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
Collins, J., Porras, J. (1994). Built to last: Successful habits of visionary companies. New York, NY: Harper Business.Google Scholar
Cook, S. D. N., Brown, J. S. (1999). Bridging epistemologies: The generative dance between organizational knowledge and organizational knowing. Organization Science, 10, 381–400.Google Scholar
Covey, S. (1990). Principle-centered leadership. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Covey, S. R. (2004). The 8th habit: From effectiveness to greatness. New York, NY: Free Press.Google Scholar
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Nakamura, J. (2005). The role of emotions in the development of wisdom. In R. J. Sternber & J. Jordon (Eds.), A handbook of wisdom: Psychological perspectives (pp. 220–242). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
DeNisi, A. S., Belsito, C. A. (2007). Wisdom and human resource management. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 261–273). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Detert, J. R., Treviño, L. K., Sweitzer, V. L. (2008). Moral disengagement in ethical decision-making: A study of antecedents and outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 374–391.Google Scholar
DiFonzo, N., Bordia, P. (1998). A tale of two corporations: Managing uncertainty during organizational change. Human Resource Management, 37, 295–303.Google Scholar
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417–440.Google Scholar
Dollinger, M. J., Golden, P. A., Saxton, T. (1997). The effect of reputation on the decision to joint venture. Strategic Management Journal, 18, 127–140.Google Scholar
Dreyfus, H. (1990). What is moral maturity? A phenomenological account of the development of ethical expertise. Retrieved from http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~hdreyfus/rtf/Moral_Maturity_8_90.rtfGoogle Scholar
Dunne, J. (1997). Professional judgment and the predicaments of practice. European Journal of Marketing, 33, 707–720.Google Scholar
Eclles, R. G., Ioannou, I., Serafeim, G. (2012). The impact of a corporate culture of sustainability on corporate behavior and performance. Harvard Business School Working Paper 12-035. Retrieved from http://www.hbs.edu/research/pdf/12-035.pdfGoogle Scholar
Eisenhart, K. (1998). Making fast strategic decisions in high velocity environments. Academy of Management Journal, 32, 543–576.Google Scholar
Elm, D. R. (2003). Honesty, spirituality, and performance at work. In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (pp. 277–288). New York, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. New York, NY: Norton & Company.Google Scholar
Ferris, G. R., Blass, F. R., Douglas, C., Kolodinsky, R. W., Treadway, D. C. (2003). Personal reputation in organizations. In J. Greenberg (Ed.), Organizational behavior: The state of the science (2nd ed., pp. 211–246). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Ferris, G. R., Davidson, S. L., Perrewé, P. L. (2005). Political skill at work: Impact on work effectiveness. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing.Google Scholar
Ferris, G. R., Perrewé, P. L., Douglas, C. (2002). Social effectiveness in organizations: Construct validity and research directions. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 9, 49–63.Google Scholar
Fombrun, C. J. (1996). Reputation: Realizing value from the corporate image. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Fombrun, C. J., Shanley, M. (1990). What's in a name? Reputation building and corporate strategy. Academy of Management Journal, 33, 233–258.Google Scholar
Forsyth, D. R. (1992). Judging the morality of business practices: The influence of personal moral philosophies. Journal of Business Ethics, 11, 461–470.Google Scholar
Freeman, R. E., Dunham, L., McVea, J. (2007). Strategy, wisdom, and stakeholder theory: A pragmatic and entrepreneurial view of stakeholder strategy. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 151–177). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Freeman, R. E., Harrison, J. S., Wicks, A. C., Parmar, B. L., de Colle, S. (2010). Stakeholder theory: The state of the art. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 693–727.Google Scholar
Fukuyama, F. (1995). Trust – The social virtues and the creation of prosperity. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Gentile, M. C. (2010). Giving voice to values: How to speak your mind when you know what's right. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Giacalone, R. A., Jurkiewicz, C. L. (2003). Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Gilovich, T., Griffin, D., Kahneman, D. (2002). Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Gioia, D. A. (2007). Interpretive wisdom. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 277–294). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Glück, J., Buck, S. (2007). Looking back across the lifespan: A life story account of the reminiscence bump. Memory and Cognition, 13, 1928–1939.Google Scholar
Goleman, D. P. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ for character, health and lifelong achievement. New York, NY: Bantam Books.Google Scholar
Gomes-Casseres, B. (2005). Outsource, don't abdicate. CIO Magazine, 19(1), 36–39.Google Scholar
Grant, R. M. (1996). Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17(Winter Special Issue), 109–121.Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. (1990). Looking fair versus being fair: Managing impressions of organizational behavior. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 12, pp. 111–167). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.Google Scholar
Greene, J. A., Brown, S. C. (2009). The wisdom development scale: Further validity investigations. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 68(4), 289–320.Google Scholar
Greider, W. (2003). The soul of capitalism: Opening paths to a moral economy. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar
Hamel, G. M., Prahalad, C. K. (1994). Competing for the future. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Hannon, J. M., Milkovich, G. T. (1996). The effect of human resource reputation signals on share prices: An event study. Human Resource Management, 35, 405–424.Google Scholar
Heaton, D. P., Schmidt-Wilk, J., Travis, F. (2004). Constructs, methods and measures for researching spirituality in organizations. Journal of Organizational Change Management, 17, 62–82.Google Scholar
Hollander, E. P. (1958). Conformity, status, and idiosyncrasy credit. Psychological Review, 65, 117–127.Google Scholar
Hosmer, L. T. (2008). The ethics of management (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Jensen, M. C. (2002). Value maximization, stakeholder theory, and the corporate objective function. Business Ethics Quarterly, 12, 235–256.Google Scholar
Jordan, J., Sternberg, R. J. (2007). Wisdom in organizations: A balance theory analysis. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 3–19). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kahneman, D., Tversky, A. (Eds.). (2000). Choices, values, and frames. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Karelitz, T. M., Jarvin, L., Sternberg, R. J. (2010). The meaning of wisdom and its development throughout life. In R. M. Lerner & W. F. Overton (Eds.), The handbook of life-span development (Vol. 1: Cognition, Biology, and Methods, pp. 781–837). Hoboken NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar
Kasser, T. (2002). The high price of materialism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Kessler, E. H., Bailey, J. R. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Khandwalla, P. N. (1998). Thorny glory: Toward organizational greatness. In S. Srivastva & D. L. Cooperrider (Eds.), Organizational wisdom and executive courage (pp. 157–204). San Francisco, CA: The New Lexington Press.Google Scholar
Klein, G. (2003). Intuition at work: Why developing your gut instincts will make you better at what you do. New York, NY: Currency Doubleday.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. (1969). Stages in the development of moral thought and action. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.Google Scholar
Kohlberg, L. (1983). The psychology of moral development. New York, NY: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Kreps, D. M., Wilson, R. (1982). Reputation and imperfect information. Journal of Economic Theory, 27, 253–279.Google Scholar
Kunzmann, U., Baltes, P. B. (2003). Wisdom-related knowledge: Affective, motivational, and interpersonal correlates. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1104–1119.Google Scholar
Lawrence, P. R. (2007). Institutionalizing wisdom in organizations. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. 43–60). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Lennick, D., Kiel, F. (2005). Moral intelligence: Enhancing business performance and leadership success. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Wharton Business Press.Google Scholar
Life Application Bible. (1991). New living translation (2nd ed.). Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers.Google Scholar
Limas, M. J., Hansson, R. O. (2004). Organizational wisdom. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 59(2), 85–103.Google Scholar
Malan, L. C., Kriger, M. P. (1998). Making sense of managerial wisdom. Journal of Management Inquiry, 7(3), 242–251.Google Scholar
Mathieson, K., Miree, C. E. (2003). Illuminating the invisible: IT and self-discovery in the workplace. In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (pp. 461–474). New York, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Maxwell, J. C. (2003). There's no such thing as ‘business’ ethics: There's only one rule for making decisions. New York, NY: Warner Books.Google Scholar
McKee, D. (2003). Spirituality and marketing: An overview of the literature. In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (pp. 57–75). New York, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
McKenna, B., Rooney, D., Boal, K. B. (2009). Wisdom principles as a meta-theoretical basis for evaluating leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 20, 177–190.Google Scholar
Meacham, J. A. (1983). Wisdom and the context of knowledge: Knowing that one doesn't know. In D. Kuhn & A. Meacham (Eds.), On the development of of developmental psychology (pp. 111–134). Basel, Switzerland: Karger.Google Scholar
Meacham, J. A. (1990). The loss of wisdom. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development (pp. 181–211). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Meeks, T. W., Jeste, D. V. (2009). Neurobiology of wisdom: An overview. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 355–365.Google Scholar
Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation. Organization Science, 5, 14–37.Google Scholar
Petrick, J. A., Scherer, R. F., Brodzinski, J. D., Quinn, J. F., Ainina, M. F. (1999). Global leadership skills and reputational capital: Intangible resources for sustainable competitive advantage. Academy of Management Executive, 13(1), 58–69.Google Scholar
Pfeffer, J. (2003). Business and the spirit: Management practices that sustain values. In R. A. Giacalone & C. L. Jurkiewicz (Eds.), Handbook of workplace spirituality and organizational performance (pp. 29–45). New York, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar
Polanyi, M. (1966). The tacit dimension. London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar
Porter, M. E., Kramer, M. R. (2011). Creating shared value. Harvard Business Review, 89(1/2), 62–77.Google Scholar
Price, T. (2003). The ethics of authentic transformational leadership. Leadership Quarterly, 14, 67–81.Google Scholar
Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Reichheld, F. F. (1996). The loyalty effect. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar
Rooney, D., McKenna, B. (2007). Wisdom in organizations: Whence and whither. Social Epistemology, 21, 113–138.Google Scholar
Schein, E. H. (1996). Three cultures of management: The key to organizational learning. Sloan Management Review, 38, 9–20.Google Scholar
Schwerin, E. (1998). Transformative research and teaching. In S. Woolpert, C. D. Slaton, & E. W. Schwerin (Eds.), Transformational politics (pp. 91–118). New York, NY: State University of New York.Google Scholar
Senske, K. (2004). Personal values: God's game plan for life. Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Books.Google Scholar
Simon, H. A. (1987). Making management decisions: The role of intuition and emotion. The Academy of Management Executive, 1(1), 57–64.Google Scholar
Spender, J. C. (1996). Making knowledge the basis of a dynamic theory of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 17(Winter Special Issue), 45–62.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M. (2001). Life reflection: A social-cognitive analysis of life review. Review of General Psychology, 5, 148–160.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Glück, J. (2011). Psychological wisdom research: Commonalities and differences in a growing field. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 19.11–19.27.Google Scholar
Staudinger, U. M., Maciel, A. G., Smith, J., Baltes, P. B. (1998). What predicts wisdom-related performance? A first look at personality, intelligence, and facilitative experiential contexts. European Journal of Personality, 12(1), 1–17.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1990). Wisdom: Its nature, origins, and development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Managerial intelligence: Why IQ isn't enough. Journal of Management, 23, 475–493.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (1998). A balance theory of wisdom. Review of General Psychology, 2, 347–365.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2000). Intelligence and wisdom. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of intelligence (pp. 631–649). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J. (2008). The WICS approach to leadership: Stories of leadership and the structures and processes that support them. Leadership Quarterly, 19, 360–371.Google Scholar
Streufert, S., Swezey, R. W. (1986). Complexity, managers, and organizations. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Thompson, C. M. (2000). The congruent life: Following the inward path to fulfilling work and inspired leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.Google Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Brown, M., Hartman, L. P. (2003). A qualitative investigation of perceived executive ethical leadership: Perceptions from inside and outside the executive suite. Human Relations, 56, 5–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Treviño, L. K., Hartman, L. P., Brown, M. (2000). Moral person and moral manager. California Management Review, 42(4), 128–142.Google Scholar
Wang, P., Chan, P. S. (1995). Top management perception of strategic information processing in a turbulent environment. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 16(7), 33–43.Google Scholar
Webster, J. D. (2007). Measuring the character strength of wisdom. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 65(2), 163–183.Google Scholar
Webster, N., McKechnie, J. (Eds.). (1961). Webster's new twentieth-century dictionary of the English language, unabridged. New York, NY: The Publisher's Guild.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E. (1998). The attitude of wisdom: Ambivalence as the optimal compromise. In S. Srivastva & D. L. Cooperrider (Eds), Organizational wisdom and executive courage (pp. 40–64). San Francisco, CA: The New Lexington Press.Google Scholar
Weick, K. E. (2007). Foreword. In E. H. Kessler & J. R. Bailey (Eds.), Handbook of organizational and managerial wisdom (pp. ix–xiii). Thousand Oaks CA: Sage.Google Scholar
Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5, 171–181.Google Scholar
Yasai-Aradekani, M. (1986). Structural adaptations to environments. Academy of Management Review, 11, 9–21.Google Scholar