Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jn8rn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-22T06:14:12.590Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The fall of a donor darling: the role of aid in Mali's crisis*

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 August 2014

Isaline Bergamaschi
Isaline Bergamaschi*
Affiliation:
Departamento de Ciencia Política, Universidad de los Andes, Facultad de Ciencias Sociales, Edificio Franco, Carrera 1 n°18a-12 Bogotá, Colombia
*
Email: i.bergamaschi@uniandes.edu.co
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This article offers a political economy perspective on the Malian crisis with a focus on aid and donor practices. The argument is two-fold. On the one hand, aid consolidated a regime that grew increasingly discredited, so that aid and donors – voluntarily or otherwise – contributed to create the pre-2012 context of fragility. On the other hand, this structural gap has created a state of affairs that provided some impulse and support to putschists and insurgent groups. It explores four channels through which this has happened in practice. External funding agencies have sponsored what was perceived as President Amadou Toumani Touré's ‘mismanagement’ of the situation in the north and the degradation of governance. In addition, donors exerted weak control over policies and ignored signals of growing popular dissatisfaction with ATT. Finally, when they tried to put pressure on governments, donors chose highly controversial issues and have enacted unpopular conditionalities, which have had destabilising effects.

Type
Research Article
Information
The Journal of Modern African Studies , Volume 52 , Issue 3 , September 2014 , pp. 347 - 378
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2014 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The fieldwork missions carried out in Bamako in June and September 2013 were funded by the Universidad de los Andes. The French embassy to Mali also provided funding as part of their support to a collective research project dealing with the elections in Mali in 2013. I thank Bruce Whitehouse and my colleagues at the Department of Political Science for their comments on an earlier version of this text, and am solely responsible for remaining errors.

References

REFERENCES

Abrahamsen, R. 2000. Disciplining Democracy: Development discourse and good governance in Africa. London: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Abrahamsen, R. 2013. ‘In Africa, war on terror doesn't fit the West's standard narrative’, The Globe and Mail. <http://m.theglobeandmail.com/commentary/in-africa-war-on-terror-doesnt-fit-the-wests-standard-narrative/article8909511/?service=mobile>, accessed 21.2.2013., accessed 21.2.2013.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Abrahamsen,+R.2013.+‘In+Africa,+war+on+terror+doesn't+fit+the+West's+standard+narrative’,+The+Globe+and+Mail.+,+accessed+21.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Allal, A. 2007. ‘ ‘Développement international' et 'promotion de la démocratie': à propos de la ‘gouvernance locale’ au Maroc’, L'Année du Maghreb III: 275–96.Google Scholar
Ammour, L. A. 2013. ‘Algeria's role in the Sahelian security crisis’, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 2: 1–11.Google Scholar
Amselle, J- L. 2006. ‘Les usages politiques du passé. Le N'ko et la décentralisation administrative du Mali’, in Fay, C., Koné, Y.F. & Quiminal, C., eds. Décentralisations et pouvoirs en Afrique – En contrepoint, modèles territoriaux français. Paris: Éditions de l'Institut de Recherche sur le Développement, 33–6.Google Scholar
Babin, P./SNV. 2009. ‘Enseignements de la mission d’étude et de l'atelier de professionnels’, vol. 1. Paris, unpublished report.Google Scholar
Baudais, V. & Chauzal, G.. 2006. ‘Les partis politiques et l’'indépendance partisane’ d'Amadou Toumani Touré’, Politique africaine 104, 4: 61–80.Google Scholar
Bayart, J-F. 1999. ‘L'Afrique dans le monde: une histoire d'extraversion’. Critique Internationale 5: 97–120.Google Scholar
Bayart, J-F., Ellis, S. & Hibou, B.. 2009. Criminalization of the State in Africa. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Begusch, L. 2013. The Securitisation of EU development policy: of discourses and practices. Amsterdam: University of Amsterdam, unpublished Master's thesis.Google Scholar
Bergamaschi, I. 2008. ‘Mali: Patterns and limits of donor-driven ownership’, in Whitfield, L., ed. The New Politics of Aid: African strategies for dealing with donors. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 217–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bergamaschi, I. 2010. ‘Assess, influence and govern. Data and poverty reduction strategy papers in Mali’, Capital, Labour and Society, 42, 1–2: 116–39.Google Scholar
Bergamaschi, I. 2011a. Le consensus post-Washington au Mali (1999–2009): genèse, trajectoires et processus d'appropriation. Paris: Institut d’Études Politiques de Paris, thèse de doctorat.Google Scholar
Bergamaschi, I. 2011b. ‘Appropriation et lutte contre la pauvreté au Mali: Interprétations, pratiques et discours concurrents’, Revue Tiers Monde 205, 1: 135–50.Google Scholar
Bergamaschi, I. 2013. ‘Mali: how to avoid making the same mistakes’, Africa in Fact. Johannesburg: Good Governance Africa. <http://gga.org/stories/editions/aif-10-aid-the-bottomless-pit/mali-how-to-avoid-making-the-same-mistakes>..>Google Scholar
Berrubé, C. 1995. ‘Entre démocratisation et agitation sociale: le Mali, un pays qui se cherche …’, Afrique 2000, 20: 95–106.Google Scholar
Bleck, J. & van de Walle, N.. 2011. ‘Parties and issues in francophone West Africa: towards a theory of non-mobilization’, Democratization 18, 5: 1125–45.Google Scholar
Bøås, M. 2012. ‘ ‘Castles in the sand’: informal networks and power brokers in the Northern Mali periphery’, in Utas, M., ed. African Conflicts and Informal Power: Big Men and Networks. London: Zed Books, 119–34.Google Scholar
Boilley, P. 1999. Les Touaregs Kel Adagh. Dépendances et révoltes: du Soudan français au Mali contemporain. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Bouhlel-Hardy, F. 2013. ‘Les médersas du Mali: réforme, insertion et transnationalisation du savoir islamique’, Politique Étrangère, 4: 819–30.Google Scholar
Bourmeau, S. ‘Le Mali est porteur d'une longue histoire de l'Etat. Interview with Johanna Siméant’. Libération, Paris. <http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2013/01/20/le-mali-est-porteur-d-une-longue-histoire-de-l-etat_875420>, accessed 20.1.2013., accessed 20.1.2013.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Bourmeau,+S.+‘Le+Mali+est+porteur+d'une+longue+histoire+de+l'Etat.+Interview+with+Johanna+Siméant’.+Libération,+Paris.+,+accessed+20.1.2013.>Google Scholar
Broqua, C. 2007. ‘Compositions silencieuses avec les normes sexuelles à Bamako’, Terroirs: revue africaine de sciences sociales et de philosophie 1–2: 33–47.Google Scholar
Broqua, C. 2009. ‘Sur les rétributions des pratiques homosexuelles à Bamako’, Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines 43, 1: 60–82.Google Scholar
Broqua, C. 2010. ‘La socialisation du désir homosexuel masculin à Bamako’, Civilisations: Revue internationale d'anthropologie et de sciences humaines 59, 1: 37–58.Google Scholar
Brown, W. & Harman, S., eds. 2013. African Agency in International Politics. New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar
Canut, C. & Smith, É.. 2006. ‘Pactes, alliances et plaisanteries’, Cahiers d'Etudes Africaines 184: 2–44.Google Scholar
Castro, J. 2012. ‘ “Les filles sont trop matérialistes”. Tensions et soupçons dans les échanges économico-sexuels à Bamako’, in Fassin, D. & Eideliman, J.-S., eds. Economies morales contemporaines. Paris: La Découverte, 309–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Castro, J. forthcoming. ‘Sexualité prémaritale et ‘prostitution’ au Mali: réflexions sur le continuum de l’échange économico-sexuel’ in Broqua, C., Deschamps, C. & Kraus, C., eds. Transactions Sexuelles. Paris: Editions de l'EHESS.Google Scholar
Chasdi, R. 2013. ‘Terrorist group dynamics through the lens of the Tigantourine assault in Algeria’, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 2, 2: 1–10.Google Scholar
Chauzet, L. & Mercier, M.. 2014. ‘Do return migrants transfer political norms to their origin country? Evidence from Mali’, Journal of Comparative Economics (in press).Google Scholar
Cissoko, K. & Touré, R.. 2005. ‘Participation des acteurs sociaux et gouvernance d’État: le cas du cadre stratégique de lutte contre la pauvreté au Mali’, Politique africaine 99, 3: 142–53.Google Scholar
Colleyn, J-P. 2009. Bamana. Visions d'Afrique. Milan: Editions Cinq continents.Google Scholar
Colleyn, J-P. 2010. Les Chevaux de la satire. Les Kórèdugaw du Mali. Paris: Gourcuff & Gradenigo.Google Scholar
Couloubaly, P. B. 2004. Le Mali d'Alpha Oumar Konaré: Ombres et lumières d'une démocratie en gestation. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Dante, I., Gautier, J.-F., Marouani, M. & Raffinot, M.. 2002. ‘Le DSRP au Mali: “gagner l'argent” ou formuler une politique de développement?’, in Cling, J.P., Razafrindakoto, M. & Roubaud, F., eds. Les nouvelles stratégies internationales de lutte contre la pauvreté. Paris: Economica, 291–309.Google Scholar
Daum, C. 1998. Les associations de Maliens en France. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Diakon, B. 2006. La dynamique de l'appropriation des techniques agricoles à l'Office du Niger. Bayreuth: University of Bayreuth, thèse de doctorat.Google Scholar
Diarrah, O. 1990. Mali: bilan d'une gestion désastreuse. Paris: L'Harmattan.Google Scholar
Diawara, M. 2012. ‘Le Mali et la pratique de la démocratie: l’échec de la démocratie consensuelle ou la fin de l'imposture’. Bamako, unpublished memorandum.Google Scholar
Doquet, A. 1999. Les masques dogon : ethnologie savante et ethnologie autochtone. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Doquet, A. 2002. ‘Se montrer dogon. Les mises en scène de l'identité ethnique’, Ethnologies comparées 5: 1–14.Google Scholar
Doumbi-Fakoly 2004. Le Mali sous Alpha Oumar Konaré. Ivry-sur-Seine: Editions Silex/Nouvelles du Sud.Google Scholar
Dowd, C. & Raleigh, C.. 2013. ‘Briefing: the myth of global Islamic terrorism and local conflict in Mali and the Sahel’, African Affairs 112, 3: 1–12.Google Scholar
ECO Consult, AGEG, APRI, Euronet, IRAM & NCG 2011. ‘Evaluation conjointe des opérations d'aide budgétaire au Mali 2003–2009: Evaluation conjointe pour le compte de la Commission de l'Union européenne, de la Belgique et du Canada comme exercice pilote du Comité d'aide au développement de l'OCDE’. Brussels, unpublished report. <www.oecd.org/derec/48670047.pdf>, accessed 2.5.2012., accessed 2.5.2012.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=ECO+Consult,+AGEG,+APRI,+Euronet,+IRAM+&+NCG2011.+‘Evaluation+conjointe+des+opérations+d'aide+budgétaire+au+Mali+2003–2009:+Evaluation+conjointe+pour+le+compte+de+la+Commission+de+l'Union+européenne,+de+la+Belgique+et+du+Canada+comme+exercice+pilote+du+Comité+d'aide+au+développement+de+l'OCDE’.+Brussels,+unpublished+report.+,+accessed+2.5.2012.>Google Scholar
Elbaz, S. 2009. ‘Quand le régime du ‘changement’ prône la ‘stabilité’’, Revue Tiers Monde 200: 821–33.Google Scholar
Gavelle, J., Siméant, J. & Traoré, L.. 2013. ‘Le court terme de la légitimité: prises de position, rumeurs et perceptions entre janvier et septembre 2012 à Bamako’, Politique africaine, 130: 23–46.Google Scholar
Gazibo, M. 2013. ‘Le Niger dans la crise malienne’, Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>..>Google Scholar
Gould, J., ed. 2005. The New Conditionality: the politics of poverty reduction strategy. New York, NY: Zed Books.Google Scholar
Gould, J. & Ojanan, J.. 2003. ‘ ‘Merging in the circle’: The politics of Tanzania's poverty reduction strategy’. University of Helsinki: Institute of Development Studies, Policy Paper 2.Google Scholar
Grémont, C. 2012. ‘Villages and crossroads: changing territorialities among the Tuareg of northern Mali’, in McDougall, J. & Scheele, J., eds. Saharan Frontiers: Space and Mobility in Northwest Africa. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 131–45.Google Scholar
Gubert, F., Lassourd, T. & Mesplé-Somps, S.. 2010. ‘Do remittances affect poverty and inequality? Evidence from Mali’, DIAL Working Paper, DT/2010/08. <http://ideas.repec.org/p/dia/wpaper/dt201008.html>, accessed 6.11.2010.,+accessed+6.11.2010.>Google Scholar
Guichaoua, Y. 2013a. ‘Mali: the fallacy of ungoverned spaces’, <http://matsutas.wordpress.com/2013/02/14/mali-the-fallacy-of-ungoverned-spaces-by-yvan-guichaoua/>, accessed 2.2.2013.,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Guichaoua, Y. 2013b. ‘Mali: Towards a neo-trusteeship?’, <http://matsutas.wordpress.com/2013/02/14/mali-the-fallacy-of-ungoverned-spaces-by-yvan-guichaoua/>, accessed 2.2.2013.,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Guillaumont, P., Guillaumont, J., Sidibé, M. & Amprou, J.. 2000. ‘Aide et réforme au Mali’, CERDI Working Paper 20, Paris.Google Scholar
Hall, B. S. 2011. A History of Race in Muslim West Africa, 1600–1960. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Hamès, C., ed. 2007. Coran et Talismans. Textes et pratiques magiques en milieu musulman. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Heyl, C. & Stroh, A.. 2013. ‘Diffusion versus strategic action? The creation of West African constitutional courts revisited’, GIGA Working Paper 239. Hamburg: GIGA.Google Scholar
Hibou, B. 2005. Surveiller et réformer: Economie politique de la servitude volontaire en Tunisie. Paris: IEP de Paris, Mémoire d'habilitation à diriger des recherches.Google Scholar
Hibou, B. 2006. ‘Domination and control in Tunisia: economic levers for the exercise of authoritarian power’, Review of African Political Economy 33, 108: 185–206.Google Scholar
Holder, G. 2009. ‘ “Maouloud 2006”, de Bamako à Tombouctou. Entre réislamisation de la nation et laïcité de l’État: la construction d'un espace public religieux au Mali’, in Holder, G., ed. L'islam en Afrique. Vers un espace public religieux? Paris: Karthala, 237–90.Google Scholar
Holder, G. 2012. ‘Au Mali, la guerre des islamismes’, Le Monde, Paris. <www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2013/01/28/au-mali-la-guerre-des-islamismes_1823540_3232.html#xtor=AL-32280397>, accessed 28.1.2013.,+accessed+28.1.2013.>Google Scholar
Hyden, G. 2008. ‘After the Paris declaration: taking on the issue of power’, Development Policy Review 26, 3: 259–74.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2012. Mali: avoiding escalation. Dakar/Brussels: International Crisis Group.Google Scholar
Jeune Afrique. 2010. ‘France-Mali: toujours pas d'accord sur l'Immigration’, Paris. <www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/DEPAFP20100203T125200Z>, accessed 3.2.2010., accessed 3.2.2010.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Jeune+Afrique.+2010.+‘France-Mali:+toujours+pas+d'accord+sur+l'Immigration’,+Paris.+,+accessed+3.2.2010.>Google Scholar
Jeune Afrique. 2012. ‘Crise au Mali : ATT, Konaré, Aqmi … Bazoum balance!’, Paris. <www.jeuneafrique.com/Article/JA2706p008-009.xml0/>, accessed 20.11.2012.,+accessed+20.11.2012.>Google Scholar
Joffe, G. 2013. ‘Libya – a clouded future’. Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 2.2.2013.,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Jónsson, G. 2008. ‘Migration aspirations and immobility in a Malian Soninke village’. Oxford: International Migration Institute, Working Paper 10, 4–39.Google Scholar
Keïta, N. 2011. ‘Le PDES en marche engage la liquidation de notre agriculture avec la privatisation de la CMDT et l'introduction des OGM au Mali’, Bamako. <www.partisadi.net/tag/la-privatisation-de-la-cmdt/> accessed 20.10.2012. accessed 20.10.2012.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Keïta,+N.2011.+‘Le+PDES+en+marche+engage+la+liquidation+de+notre+agriculture+avec+la+privatisation+de+la+CMDT+et+l'introduction+des+OGM+au+Mali’,+Bamako.++accessed+20.10.2012.>Google Scholar
Klute, G. 2011. ‘From friends to enemies: Negotiating nationalism, tribal identities, and kinship in the fratricidal war of the Malian Tuareg’, in Casajus, D., ed. Le Sahara, géographies imaginaires et cosmopolitisme, L'Année du Maghreb. Aix-en-Provence: Editions IREMAM, 163–75.Google Scholar
Lacher, W. 2011. ‘Organized crime and terrorism in the Sahel: drivers, actors, options’, Comments 1: 1–4. Berlin: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP).Google Scholar
Lacher, W. 2012. ‘Organized crime and conflict in the Sahel-Sahara region’, Washington, DC: Carnegie Paper, 1–32.Google Scholar
Lancaster, C. & Wangwe, S.. 2001. Managing a Smooth Transition from Aid Dependence in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Larémont, R. 2013. ‘After the fall of Qaddafi: political, economic, and security consequences for Libya, Mali, Niger, and Algeria’, Stability: International Journal of Security and Development 2, 2: 1–8.Google Scholar
Lecocq, B. 2010. Disputed Desert: decolonisation, competing nationalisms and Tuareg rebellions in Mali. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar
Lecocq, B. & Schrijver, P.. 2007. ‘The war on terror in a haze of dust: potholes and pitfalls on the Saharan front’, Journal of Contemporary African Studies 25, 1: 141–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lecocq, B., Mann, G., Whitehouse, B., Badi, D., Pelckmans, L., Belalimat, N., Hall, B. & Lacher, W.. 2013. ‘One hippopotamus and eight blind analysts: a multivocal analysis of the 2012 political crisis in the divided Republic of Mali’, Review of African Political Economy 40, 137: 343–57.Google Scholar
Leininger, J. 2010. ‘‘Bringing the outside in’: illustrations from Haiti and Mali for the re-conceptualization of democracy promotion’, Contemporary Politics, 16, 1: 63–80.Google Scholar
Leininger, J. 2013. ‘Die ambivalente Rolle islamischer Akteure im Demokratisierungsprozess in Mali’, in Leininger, J., ed. Religiöse Akteure in Demokratisierungsprozessen: konstruktiv, destruktiv und obstruktiv. Wiesbaden: Springer, 193–242.Google Scholar
Les Échos. 2008. ‘Bè bi ba bolo: La leçon de morale’, Bamako. <www.afribone.com/spip.php?article10881>, accessed 3.11.2008.,+accessed+3.11.2008.>Google Scholar
Lohle-Tart, L. 2005. ‘Mali: appréciation de la deuxième année de mise en œuvre du Cadre Stratégique de Lutte contre la Pauvreté (CLSP)’. Brussels: Commission Européenne, unpublished report.Google Scholar
Magassa, H. 2002. ‘Ethique et Pauvreté : l'exemple du Mali’, in Gohy, G. & Sané, P., eds. La pauvreté, une fatalité? Promouvoir l'autonomie et la sécurité humaine des groupes défavorisés (Bénin, Burkina-Faso, Mali, Niger). Paris: UNESCO/Karthala/Futurs africains, 129–76.Google Scholar
Magassa, H. 2010. ‘Dieu et etat de droit au Mali: droits à l'homme, droits de l'homme et droit de Dieu’. Bamako: PUBLISAM.Google Scholar
Magassa, H. & Meyer, S.. 2008. ‘Le développement au Mali: des mondes séparés? L'harmonisation des bailleurs de fonds: entre efficacité et démocratisation. Étude de cas IV’, FRIDE Working Paper 50.Google Scholar
Management Systems International. 2009. ‘Counter-terrorism and development in Mali’. Washington, DC: Report for USAID.Google Scholar
Maoundonodji, G. 2013. ‘L'intervention militaire tchadienne au Mali : enjeux et limites d'une volonté de puissance régionale’, Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 2.2.2013., accessed 2.2.2013.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Maoundonodji,+G.2013.+‘L'intervention+militaire+tchadienne+au+Mali+:+enjeux+et+limites+d'une+volonté+de+puissance+régionale’,+Dossiers+du+CERI.+,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Marchal, R. 2012. ‘Is a military intervention in Mali unavoidable?’. Oslo: NOREF Report, 1–21.Google Scholar
Marchal, R. 2013. ‘Briefing: Military (mis)adventures in Mali’, African Affairs 112, 3: 1–12.Google Scholar
Muna, A. 2009. ‘Understanding of the natural resource conflict dynamics: The case of Tuareg in North Africa and the Sahel’, Institute for Security Studies 194: 1–12.Google Scholar
Nubukpo, K. 2006. ‘Le piège du coton: le Mali à la croisée des chemins’, Oléagineux, Corps Gras, Lipides 13, 4: 278–84.Google Scholar
Nubukpo, K. & Keïta, M.S.. 2006. ‘Prix mondiaux, prix au producteur et avenir de la filière coton au Mali’, Cahiers Agricultures 15, 1: 35–41.Google Scholar
Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. 1984. Les sociétés songhay-zarma (chefs, guerriers, esclaves, paysans…). Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Olivier de Sardan, J.-P. 2013. ‘La “question touareg” aujourd'hui au Mali: rappel des faits et mise en perspective’, Niamey, unpublished note.Google Scholar
Oxfam. 2002. ‘Cultivating poverty: the impact of US cotton subsidies on Africa’. Oxfam International briefing paper 30. <www.oxfam.org.nz/sites/default/files/reports/cottonFINAL.pdf>, accessed 8.8.2007.,+accessed+8.8.2007.>Google Scholar
Oxfam. 2006. ‘Kicking the habit: How the World Bank and the IMF are still addicted to attaching economic policy conditions to aid’. Oxfam International briefing paper 96.Google Scholar
Pelckmans, L. 2011. Travelling Hierarchies. Moving in and out of slave status in a Central Malian Fulɓe network. Leiden: African Studies Centre.Google Scholar
Pelckmans, L. 2013. ‘Slavery in the city? Travelling hierarchies among West African migrants in the cities of Paris and Bamako’. Paris: Fondation Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, Working papers series 38. <http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/85/22/73/PDF/FMSH-WP-2013-38_pelckmans.pdf>, accessed 3.12.2013., accessed 3.12.2013.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Pelckmans,+L.2013.+‘Slavery+in+the+city?+Travelling+hierarchies+among+West+African+migrants+in+the+cities+of+Paris+and+Bamako’.+Paris:+Fondation+Maison+des+Sciences+de+l'Homme,+Working+papers+series+38.+,+accessed+3.12.2013.>Google Scholar
Pesche, D. & Nubukpo, K.. 2004. ‘L'Afrique du coton à Cancún: les acteurs d'une négociation’, Politique africaine 95: 158–68.Google Scholar
Pincus, W. 2013. ‘Mali insurgency followed 10 years of U.S. counterterrorism programs’, The Washington Post, Washington, DC. <http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-01-16/world/36384128_1_malian-burkina-faso-mauritania>, accessed 17.1.2013.,+accessed+17.1.2013.>Google Scholar
Porter, G.D. 2013. ‘The new resource regionalism in North Africa and the Sahara’, Dossiers du CERI, <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 2.2.2013.,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Possémé-Rageau, G. 2014. ‘L'aide au Nord depuis 1992’, in Mali: une contribution de la recherche française et européenne, Agence française de développement working paper 136: 32–3. <www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/Documents-de-travail/136-document-travail.pdf>, accessed 12.6.2014., accessed 12.6.2014.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Possémé-Rageau,+G.2014.+‘L'aide+au+Nord+depuis+1992’,+in+Mali:+une+contribution+de+la+recherche+française+et+européenne,+Agence+française+de+développement+working+paper+136:+32–3.+,+accessed+12.6.2014.>Google Scholar
Quaregna, P. 2006. ‘Le bon élève: le Mali et nous’. Italy.Google Scholar
Raffinot, M. 2010. ‘L'appropriation (ownership) des politiques de développement: de la théorie à la pratique’, Mondes en développement 149, 1: 87–104.Google Scholar
Raffinot, M. 2014. ‘Le Mali, bon élève des bailleurs?’, in Mali : une contribution de la recherche française et européenne, Agence française de développement working paper 136 : 33–4. <www.afd.fr/webdav/site/afd/shared/PUBLICATIONS/RECHERCHE/Scientifiques/Documents-de-travail/136-document-travail.pdf>, accessed 12.6.2014.,+accessed+12.6.2014.>Google Scholar
République du Mali/Cellule Technique CSLP. 2007. ‘Note sur le suivi du CSLP’. Bamako, unpublished note.Google Scholar
D., Resnick & van de Walle, N., eds. 2013. Democratic Trajectories in Africa: unraveling the impact of foreign aid. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Rillon, O. 2010. ‘Corps rebelles: la mode des jeunes urbains dans les années 1960–1970 au Mali’, Genèses 81, 4: 64–83.Google Scholar
Rodet, M. 2009. Les migrants ignorés du Haut-Sénégal, 1900–1946. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
Rousselier, D. 2013. ‘Au Mali, la France a favorisé une fiction de démocratie’, Libération, Paris.Google Scholar
Roy, A. 2010a. ‘L'initiative riz au Mali: une réponse politique à l'insécurité alimentaire ?’, Politique africaine 119: 87–106.Google Scholar
Roy, A. 2010b. ‘Peasant struggles in Mali: from defending cotton producers interests to becoming part of the Malian power structures’, Review of African Political Economy 125, 27: 299–314.Google Scholar
Roy, O. 2013. ‘Vaine stratégie française au Mali’, Le Monde, Paris.Google Scholar
Samuel, B. 2009. ‘Le cadre stratégique de lutte contre la pauvreté et les trajectoires de la planification au Burkina Faso’, Sociétés Politiques Comparées 16: 1–76. <www.fasopo.org/reasopo/n16/article.pdf>, accessed 3.6.2010.,+accessed+3.6.2010.>Google Scholar
Scheele, J. 2013. ‘Trafic ou commerce? Des échanges économiques au Sahara contemporain’, Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 2.2.2013.,+accessed+2.2.2013.>Google Scholar
Schulz, D. 2001. Perpetuating the Politics of Praise: Jeli singers, radios and political mediation in Mali. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.Google Scholar
Schulz, D. 2003. ‘Political factions, ideological fictions: the controversy over family law reform in democratic Mali’, Islamic Law and Society 10, 1: 132–64.Google Scholar
Schulz, D. 2012. Muslims and New Media in West Africa: pathways to God. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Seely, J. 2001. ‘A political analysis of decentralization: coopting the Tuareg threat in Mali’. Journal of Modern African Studies 39, 3: 499–524.Google Scholar
Semega, H. 2009. ‘Nord Mali: Air ‘cocaïne’ volait avec de faux papiers’, Journal du Mali, Bamako. <www.journaldumali.com/article.php?aid=831>, accessed 21.12.2009.,+accessed+21.12.2009.>Google Scholar
Serra, R. 2012. ‘Policy-makers incentives and policy trajectories: comparing cotton sector reform in four African countries’, Africa Power and Politics Programme Working Paper 23.Google Scholar
Siméant, J. 2014. Contester au Mali. Formes de la mobilisation et de la critique à Bamako. Paris: Karthala (forthcoming).Google Scholar
Soares, B. 2009. ‘The attempt to reform family law in Mali’, Die Welt des Islams 49: 398–428.Google Scholar
Soares, B. 2012. ‘On the recent mess in Mali’, Anthropology Today 28, 5: 1–2.Google Scholar
Thiriot, C. 2005. ‘Sortir de l'autoritarisme militaire, une perspective comparative’, in Thiriot, C., Marty, M. & Nadal, E., eds. Faire de la politique comparée: les terrains du comparatisme. Paris: Karthala, 359–76.Google Scholar
Thiriot, C. 2008. ‘La place des militaires dans les régimes post-transition d'Afrique subsaharienne: la difficile resectorisation’, Revue Internationale de Politique Comparée 15, 1: 15–34.Google Scholar
Thomson, A. 2004. An Introduction to African Politics. Abingdon: Routledge.Google Scholar
Touré, L. 2005. ‘Une innovation sanitaire: l'appropriation des médicaments par les populations touaregs du Mali’, in Pordié, L., ed. Panser le monde, penser les médecines. Traditions médicales et développement sanitaire. Paris: Karthala, 269–86.Google Scholar
Touré, L. 2013. ‘La baisse de qualité, prix à payer pour un meilleur accès aux soins ? Perceptions sur les politiques d'exemptions de paiement des soins au Mali’, Afrique Contemporaine 243: 49–63.Google Scholar
Traoré, A. 1999. L'Etau: L'Afrique dans un monde sans frontières. Arles: Actes Sud.Google Scholar
United Nations Development Programme. 2003. ‘Rapport sur la situation sociale et économique au Mali’. New York: UNDP.Google Scholar
Vallée, O. 2010. La police morale de l'anti-corruption: Cameroun, Nigéria. Paris: Karthala.Google Scholar
van de Walle, N. 2013. ‘Foreign aid in dangerous places: the donors and Mali's democracy’, in Resnick, D. & van de Walle, N., eds. Democratic Trajectories in Africa: unraveling the impact of foreign aid. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 87–109.Google Scholar
Van Vliet, M. 2014. ‘Weak legislatures, failing MPs, and the collapse of democracy in Mali’, African Affairs 113, 450: 45–66.Google Scholar
Villalón, L. A. 2012. ‘Rethinking education in the Sahel: democracy, religious change, and the politics of reform’, in Lust, E. M. & Ndegwa, S. N., eds. Governing Africa's changing societies: dynamics of reform. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
de Wall, A. 2013. ‘Sudan, the Sahel and the Sahara: the 99% Principle’, Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 21/07/2013.,+accessed+21/07/2013.>Google Scholar
Whitehouse, B. 2012a. ‘The force of action: Legitimising the coup in Bamako, Mali’, Africa Spectrum 47, 2–3: 93–110.Google Scholar
Whitehouse, B. 2012b. Migrants and Strangers in an African City: Exile, dignity, belonging. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Whitfield, L. (ed.) 2008. The New Politics of Aid: African strategies for dealing with donors. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Wing, S.D. 2010. Constructing Democracy in Africa: Mali in transition. New York, NY: Palgrave.Google Scholar
Wing, S.D. 2013. ‘Briefing Mali: politics of a crisis’, African Affairs 112, 3: 1–12.Google Scholar
Zekeria Ould, A. 2013. ‘Mauritanie: la stratégie d'un ex-futur maillon faible’, Dossiers du CERI. <www.sciencespo.fr/ceri/en/dossierceri>, accessed 2.12.2013., accessed 2.12.2013.' href=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Zekeria+Ould,+A.2013.+‘Mauritanie:+la+stratégie+d'un+ex-futur+maillon+faible’,+Dossiers+du+CERI.+,+accessed+2.12.2013.>Google Scholar

Interviews

Maurice Adevah-Poeuf, President of the Agence française d'Appui aux Collectivités, 27.11.2007.

Technical advisor, Ministère de l'Economie et des Finances, République du Mali, 02.3.2007, 26.3.2008, 17.6.2013, 21.3.2014.

Technical assistant (France), Ministre de l'Enseignement Supérieur et de la Recherche Scientifique, République du Mali, 11.11.2007.

Economist, Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Technical Unit, 1.4.2008.

Issaka Bagayogo, Professor of Anthropology, Université de Bamako, 06.11.2007.

Main economist, Unit coordinator and Head of the Human and Sustainable Development Unit, technical assistants Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper Technical Unit, 2.4.2007, 15.3.2007, 17.6.2013, 21.3.2014.

Head and coordinator of the Rural Development Unit, Agence française de Développement in Mali, 24.11.2007, 29.11.2007, 18.3.2013.

Head of Cooperation, Head of delegation, first secretary for Institutions and rural development, coordinator of development economics, coordinator of decentralisation programmes, coordinator of budget support, health and education, Delegation of the European Commission in Mali, 3.4.2007, 5.12.2007, 8.4.2008, 9.4.2008.

Vérificateur, Bureau du Vérificateur Général du Mali, 13.11.2007.

French Ambassador, Adjunct counsellor for Cooperation, 13.4.2007 et 8.11.2007, 22.3.2008, 15.6.2013.

Representation of the IMF in Mali, 25.11.2007, 25.3.2008.

Technical assistant Technique (European Union), Programme ADERE-Nord (développement régional du Nord Mali), 20.11.2007, 12.4.2008 and by email.

Direction of International Cooperation, Canadian embassy to Mali, 18.12.2007, 14.6.2013.

Secretary of Education, Secretary of health, Dutch embassy to Mali, 5.12.2007, 6.12.2007, 11.6.2013, 23.3.2014.

Senior economist Senior, Department of Human Development for the Africa region, 13.11.2007.

Representation of the World Bank in Mali, 13.3.2007, 13.11.2007.

Presidential advisor, Republic of Mali, 4.4.2007.

Technical assistant (France), Budget division, République du Mali, 10.11.2007.

Main advisor and coordinator of Pacte (decentralisation project), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ), 14.12.2007, 2.4.2014.

Technical assistant (European Union), Commissariat au Développement Institutionnel, République du Mali, 30.10.2007.

Paul Elisabeth, technical assistant (Coopération technique belge) at the Cellule de Planification et de Statistiques, Health ministry, République du Mali, 1.10.2007, 8.4.2008 and by email.

Budget Division, Ministère de l'Economie et des Finances, République du Mali, 6.3.2007.

Ag Dalla Ousmane, researcher at the University Jean Monnet in Saint-Etienne, former regional coordinator of the European project ADERE-Nord in Gao, 4.5.2013.

André Marty, French cooperation expert, 10.5.2012.

Cooperation division, Spanish embassy to Mali, 20.6.2013, 25.4.2014.

German embassy to Mali, 22.6.2013.

Donor technical pool, 20·6. 2013.

Babin Pascal, agriculture engineer, researcher at the Institut de Recherches et d'Applications des Méthodes de Développement and former counsellor on cotton for the Dutch cooperation agency (SNV), 15/07/2010.

Delpeuch Claire, doctoral student at the Groupe d'Economie Mondiale, Sciences Po, 15/02/2010.

Samuel Boris, doctoral student at Sciences-Po/CERI, 8.4.2008 and by email.

Dr Vallée Olivier, economist and international consultant, 23.11.2009.

Raffinot Marc, economist, Université Paris-Dauphine, 4.4.2009.

Roy Alexis, doctoral student at the Centre d'Etudes de l'Afrique noire, Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, 4.2.2010.

Texier Pierre, industrial director, adjunct director, Compagnie française de Développement des Textiles, 10.8.2010.