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2. Washington Post, 2 February 1979. The push for a balanced-budget amendment stalled at thirty-two states in the mid-1980s. New York Times, 19 March 1985.

3. This article cannot discuss all aspects of the model. I will review its general contours, noting changes in fiscal policy in four major crises prior to the 1970s.

4. Nettels, Curtis, The Emergence of a National Economy, 1775–1815 (New York, 1962), chap. 3Google Scholar; Morris, Richard B., The Forging of the Union, 1781–1789 (New York, 1987), chap. 6Google Scholar; Flannagan, John H., “Trying Times: Depression in New Hampshire, 1781–1789” (Ph.D. dissertation, Georgetown University, 1972)Google Scholar; McCusker, John J. and Menard, Russell R., The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill, 1985), chap. 17.Google Scholar

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11. Scholars who saw conservative reaction to state actions as central to the movement for a stronger national government include Nevins, The American States, 570; Nettels, National Economy, 89–92; Brown, Redeeming the Republic; Wood, Gordon S., The Creation of the American Republic, 1776–1787 (New York, 1969), chaps. 10, 11, esp. p. 465.Google Scholar

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17. For example, Keyssar, Alexander, Out of Work: The First Century of Unemployment in Massachusetts (Cambridge, Mass., 1986), 133–35.Google Scholar

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21. Sylla, Richard, “Long-Term Trends in State and Local Finance: Sources and Uses of Funds in North Carolina, 1800–1977,” in Engerman, S. and Gallman, R., eds., Long-Term Factors in American Economic Growth (Chicago, 1986), 842–43Google Scholar; Platt, Harold, City Building in the New South: The Growth of Public Services in Houston, Texas, 1830–1910 (Philadelphia, 1983), 51–63Google Scholar; Monkkonen, Eric H., The Local State: Public Money and American Cities (Stanford, Calif., 1995), 26, 68.Google Scholar

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23. Goodrich, “Revulsion Against Internal Improvements”; Secrist, Horace, An Economic Analysis of the Constitutional Restrictions upon Public Indebtedness in the United States (Madison, Wis., 1914), 59–60Google Scholar, and appendixes I-III; Illinois Legislative Reference Bureau, “State and Local Finance,” Constitutional Convention Bulletins (Springfield, 1920), 4:294–300.Google Scholar

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26. Campbell, Growth of American Government, 179–84.

27. In 1975 joblessness rose to 8.5 percent, but the CPI dropped only to 9.1 percent, down from 11.0 percent in the previous year. The 1975 stagflation rate of 17.6 was exceeded only by 1980 (20.6) and 1981 (17.9).

28. Vogel, David, Fluctuating Fortunes: The Political Power of Business in America (New York, 1990), esp. chaps. 6 and 7Google Scholar; Ferguson, Thomas and Rodgers, Joel, Right Turn: The Decline of the Democrats and the Future of American Politics (New York, 1986), chap. 3Google Scholar; Gordon, David M., Fat and Mean: The Corporate Squeeze of Working Americans and the Myth of Managerial “Downsizing” (New York, 1996), 69, 81, 262, and chap. 8.Google Scholar

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36. Bennett, Leviathan, 87; Sears, David O. and Citrin, Jack, Tax Revolt: Something for Nothing in California (Cambridge, Mass., 1982), 47–70Google Scholar, 231; Ferguson, Right Turn, 18–19; Campbell, Growth of American Government, 234.

37. Lipset, Seymour M. and Schneider, William, The Confidence Gap: Business, Labor, and Government in the Public Mind (New York, 1983), 151–59Google Scholar; Kuttner, Revolt of the Haves, 8, 18, 331; Bennett, Leviathan, 81; Page, Benjamin and Shapiro, Robert, “Changes in Americans' Policy Preferences,” Political Science Quarterly (1982): 38Google Scholar; Hibbs, American Political Economy, 128–33.

38. Lowery, David and Sigelman, Lee, “Understanding the Tax Revolt: Eight Explanations,” American Political Science Review (1981): 963–74Google Scholar; Broder, David, “The Puzzlement of Taxation,” Boston Globe, 29 February 1979Google Scholar. Also Sears and Citrin, Tax Revolt, 208–15, 230–31; Kuttner, Revolt of the Haves, 164; Jack Citrin, Introduction, in Schwadron, Terry, ed., California and the American Tax Revolt (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1984), 16–17.Google Scholar

39. Mayhew, David R., Placing Parties in American Politics (Princeton, 1986), chap. 10CrossRefGoogle Scholar. Mayhew found that strong partisan traditions were consistently related to small public economics between 1953 and 1980, although the relationship diminished to near zero over time.

40. Nevada voters passed a Proposition 13 clone as a constitutional initiative in 1978, but they rejected it in 1980 on the required second referendum. In the intervening year the legislature adopted a tax-reform and expenditure-limit measure.

41. Moreover, states in the traditional-party/no initiative category that enacted limitation measures had lower readings on the Mayhew Traditional Party Organization scale than did the states that avoided cap laws. The three states that adopted property-levy limitations were Indiana, Louisiana, and New Mexico.

42. The median “tax burden” (state-local tax revenue as a percentage of personal income) among strong-party states where limitations were adopted was 11.6 percent and 12.2 percent where they were not. Among the weak-party states, the median tax burden among states that adopted limitations was 12.7 percent and 11.6 percent among states that did not. The tax burden among the six states where voters initiated property tax limitations (California et al.) was 12.9 percent.

The median percentage reduction in revenue dependence on local property taxes between FY 67 and FY 77 was -22 percent for all fifty states, but only -11.5 percent for the six Proposition 13-type states (California et al.), signifying that latter group had lagged in reforming property taxes.

43. Kuttner, Revolt of the Haves, chaps. 1–6; Sears and Citrin, Tax Revolt; Kaufman, “Inflation,” 217–19; Couch, Winston W., Bollens, J., and Scott, S., California Government and Politics (Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1981), esp. 234–35, 276–77Google Scholar; Adams, Secret of the Tax Revolt, chap. 6.

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48. Suskind, “Proposition 2 ½,” 160–63; Division of Local Services, Massachusetts Department of Revenue, City and Town (November 1994), 4, and (December 1993), 6.

49. Rodney T. Smith, “Local Fiscal Arrangements, Home Rule, and California's Fiscal Constitution After Proposition 13,” in Stocker, Proposition 13, 79–80; O'Sullivan, Arthur, Sexton, Terri A., and Sheffrin, Steven M., Property Taxes and Tax Revolts: The Legacy of Proposition 13 (New York, 1995), 115, 137CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schwadron, California and the American Tax Revolt, 80.

50. See the essays by Richard W. Gable on California and Dennis Hall on Massachusetts in Beyle, Governors and Hard Times, and the chapters by Jeffrey I. Chapman on California and Bruce Wallin on Massachusetts in Gold, Steven D., ed., The Fiscal Crisis of the States (Washington, D.C., 1995).Google Scholar

51. Sears and Citrin, Tax Revolt, 41.

52. Campbell, The Growth of American Government, chap. 10.

53. Campbell, The Growth of American Government, 2–5, and Federalism and Public Performance: Perspectives on American Political Development (forthcoming) develops this typology.