Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-dzt6s Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-27T19:09:13.325Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Reasons for Nondaily Smoking among Young Adults: Scale Development and Validation

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  04 April 2013

Carla J. Berg
Carla J. Berg*
Affiliation:
Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Emory University School of Public Health, USA
*
Address all correspondence to: Carla J. Berg, Department of Behavioral Sciences and Health Education, Emory University School of Public Health, 1518 Clifton Road, NE, Room 524, Atlanta, GA 30322. Email: cjberg@emory.edu.
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Introduction: Given the increased rates of nondaily smoking and the lack of validated measures to assess factors related to nondaily smoking, we aimed to develop a measure of reasons for nondaily smoking among young adults. Specifically, we developed a scale assessing reasons or triggers for nondaily smoking and examined its reliability, factor structure, and concurrent validity. Methods: We administered an online survey to 2,000 students at six colleges in the Southeastern US, and 718 (35.9%) returned a completed survey. The current analyses focused on the 95 participants who reported nondaily smoking (i.e., smoking between 1 and 29 days of the past 30 days). In addition to the items created for scale development, measures included socio-demographics, other measures of motivation and confidence/self-efficacy, past smoking/quitting history, readiness to quit, and other psychosocial factors related to smoking. Results: The 19-item Reasons for Nondaily Smoking Scale (RNS) demonstrated an average score of 45.36 (SD = 15.55) and internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha of 0.79). Factor analysis of the items extracted four factors which accounted for 57.4% of score variance: Social influences; Enhancing buzzes and positive affect; Negative affect regulation; and Lack of concern of addiction. Concurrent and discriminant validity were documented. Conclusions: Developing validated measures designed to assess factors associated with nondaily smoking will enhance our ability to address this growing public health concern. The development and validation of the RNS for young adults may be critical in informing our intervention strategies and potentially for effecting or predicting cessation among young adult nondaily smokers.

Keywords

Smokingtobacco controlsmoking cessationyouth
Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Smoking Cessation , Volume 9 , Issue 1 , June 2014 , pp. 17 - 25
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Australian Academic Press Pty Ltd 2013 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

ACHA (2009). American College Health Association: National College Health Assessment Spring 2008 Reference Group Data Report (Abridged). Journal of American College Health, 57, 477–488.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ajzen, I. (1988). Attitudes, Personality, and Behavior. Chicago, IL: The Dorsey Press.Google Scholar
An, L. C., Hennrikus, D. J., Perry, C. L., Lein, E. B., Klatt, C., et al. (2007). Feasibility of Internet health screening to recruit college students to an online smoking cessation intervention. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 9 Suppl 1, S11–18. doi:10.1080/14622200601083418Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Lessard, L., Parelkar, P. P., Thrasher, J., Escoffery, C., Kegler, M. C., Goldade, K., & Ahluwalia, J. S. (2011). College student reactions to smoke-free policies in public, on campus, and at home. Health Education Research, 26 (1), 106–118. doi:10.1093/her/cyq076CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, C. J., Ling, P. M., Hayes, R. B., Murtha, E., Nollen, N., et al. (In press). Nondaily smokers versus nonsmokers and daily smokers: Distinguishing characteristics and factors related to readiness to quit smoking. Health Education Research.Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Lust, K. A., Sanem, J. R., Kirch, M. A., Rudie, M., et al. (2009). Smoker self-identification versus recent smoking among college students. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36, 333–336. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.11.010CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berg, C. J., Nehl, E., Sterling, K., Buchanan, T. S., Narula, S., et al. (2011). The development and validation of a scale assessing individual schemas used in classifying a smoker: Implications for research and practice. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 13, 1257–1265. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr144Google Scholar
Berg, C. J., Parelkar, P. P., Lessard, L., Escoffery, C., Kegler, M. C., et al. (2010). Defining ‘smoker’: college student attitudes and related smoking characteristics. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 12, 963–969. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntq123Google Scholar
Biener, L., & Abrams, D. B. (1991). The Contemplation Ladder: Validation of a measure of readiness to consider smoking cessation. Health Psychology, 10, 360–365. doi:10.1037//0278–6133.10.5.360Google Scholar
Bjartveit, K., & Tverdal, A. (2005). Health consequences of smoking 1–4 cigarettes per day. Tobacco Control, 14, 315–320. doi:10.1136/tc.2005.011932CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
California Department of Health and Human Services. Tobacco Control Section (1999). California Tobacco Survey: 1999. U Jolla. CA: Cancer Prevention and Control Unit.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (1997). Youth risk behavior surveillance: National College Health Risk Behavior Survey–United States, 1995. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report Surveillance Summaries, 46, 1–54.Google Scholar
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2011). Smoking and Tobacco Use. ‘Adult Cigarette Smoking in the United States: Current Estimate.’ Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.Google Scholar
Crawford, S., McCabe, S., & Kurotsuchi Inkelas, K. (2008). Using the Web to Survey College Students: Institutional Characteristics That Influence Survey Quality. Paper presented at the American Association For Public Opinion Research, Fontainebleau Resort, Miami Beach, FL.Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R. (2011). Who are you going to believe? Adolescents and nicotine addiction. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48, 1–2. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.10.012Google Scholar
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., O'Loughlin, J., Pbert, L., et al. (2007). Symptoms of tobacco dependence after brief intermittent use: the Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youth-2 study. Archives of Pediatriatics & Adolescent Medicine, 161, 704–710. doi: 10.1001/archpedi.161.7.704CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., Rigotti, N. A., et al. (2002). Measuring the loss of autonomy over nicotine use in adolescents: the DANDY (Development and Assessment of Nicotine Dependence in Youths) study. Archives of Pediatric & Adolescent Medicine, 156, 397–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
DiFranza, J. R., & Wellman, R. J. (2005). A sensitization-homeostasis model of nicotine craving, withdrawal, and tolerance: integrating the clinical and basic science literature. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 7, 9–26. doi: 10.1080/14622200412331328538Google Scholar
Etter, J. F., Bergman, M. M., Humair, J. P., & Perneger, T. V. (2000). Development and validation of a scale measuring self-efficacy of current and former smokers. Addiction, 95, 901–913. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.9569017.xGoogle Scholar
Evans, N. J., Gilpin, E., Pierce, J. P., Burns, D. M., & Al, E. (1992). Occasional smoking among adults: evidence from the California tobacco survey. Tobacco Control, 1, 169–175. doi:10.1136/tc.1.3.169CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiore, M. C., Jaen, C. R., & Baker, T. B. (2008). Treating Tobacco Use and Dependence: 2008 Update. Clinical Practice Guideline. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Public Health Service.Google Scholar
Gilpin, E., Cavin, S. W., & Pierce, J. P. (1997). Adult smokers who do not smoke daily. Addiction, 92, 473–480. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb03379.xGoogle Scholar
Gorsuch, R. L. (1983). Factor Analysis (2nd ed.), Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Harrison, E. L., Desai, R. A., & McKee, S. A. (2008). Nondaily smoking and alcohol use, hazardous drinking, and alcohol diagnoses among young adults: findings from the NESARC. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 32, 2081–2087. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00796.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hassmiller, K. M., Warner, K. E., Mendez, D., Levy, D. T., & Romano, E. (2003). Nondaily smokers: who are they? American Journal of Public Health, 93, 1321–1327. doi:10.2105/AJPH.93.8.1321Google Scholar
Hatcher, L. (1994) A Step-by-Step Approach to Using the SAS® System for Factor Analysis and Structural Equation Modeling. Cary, NC: SAS Institute, Inc.Google Scholar
Hennrikus, D. J., Jeffery, R. W., & Lando, H. A. (1996). Occasional smoking in a Minnesota working population. American Journal of Public Health, 86, 1260–1266. doi:10.2105/AJPH.86.9.1260CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hine, D. W., Honan, C. A., Marks, A. D., & Brettschneider, K. (2007). Development and validation of the Smoking Expectancy Scale for Adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 19, 347–355. doi: 10.1037/1040-3590.19.3.347Google Scholar
Jimenez-Ruiz, C., Kunze, M., & Fagerstrom, K. O. (1998 ). Nicotine replacement: a new approach to reducing tobacco-related harm. European Respiratory Journal, 11, 473–479.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplowitz, M. D., Hadlock, T. D., & Levine, R. (2004). A comparison of web and mail survey response rates. Public Opinion Quarterly, 68, 94–101. doi:10.1093/poq/nfh006Google Scholar
Kline, P. (1979). Psychometrics and Psychology. London: Acaderric Press.Google Scholar
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. (2003 ). The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener. Medical Care, 41, 1284–1292. doi: 10.1097/01.MLR.0000093487.78664.3CCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Luoto, R., Uutela, A., & Puska, P. (2000). Occasional smoking increases total and cardiovascular mortality among men. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 2, 133–139. doi:10.1080/713688127Google Scholar
Maibach, E. W., Maxfield, A., Ladin, K., & Slater, M. (1996). Translating health psychology into effective health communication. Journal of Health Psychology, 1, 261–277. doi:10.1177/135910539600100302Google Scholar
Moran, S., Wechsler, H., & Rigotti, N. A. (2004). Social smoking among US college students. Pediatrics, 114, 1028–1034. doi:10.1542/peds.2003–0558-LCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Myers, M. G., McCarthy, D. M., MacPherson, L., & Brown, S. A. (2003). Constructing a short form of the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire with adolescents and young adults. Psychological Assessment, 15, 163–172. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.15.2.163Google Scholar
Office of Applied Studies (2006). The NSDUH Report. Rockville, MD.Google Scholar
Okuyemi, K. S., Harris, K. J., Scheibmeir, M., Choi, W. S., Powell, J., et al. (2002). Light smokers: issues and recommendations. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 4, S103–112. doi:10.1080/1462220021000032726Google Scholar
Piko, B. F., Wills, T. A., & Walker, C. (2007). Motives for smoking and drinking: Country and gender differences in samples of Hungarian and US high school students. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2087–2098. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.01.013Google Scholar
Pinsker, E. A., Berg, C. J., Nehl, E., Prokhorov, A. V., Buchanan, T., et al. (Under review). Intentions to quit smoking among daily smokers and native and converted nondaily college student smokers. Nicotine and Tobacco Research.Google Scholar
Pope, C. A. 3rd, Burnett, R. T., Krewski, D., Jerrett, M., Shi, Y., et al. (2009). Cardiovascular mortality and exposure to airborne fine particulate matter and cigarette smoke: shape of the exposure-response relationship. Circulation, 120, 941–948. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.857888CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Prochaska, J. O., & DiClemente, C. C. (1984). Self change processes, self-efficacy and decisional balance across five stages of smoking cessation. Advances in Cancer Control-1983. New York, NY: Alan R. Liss, Inc.Google Scholar
Rollins, S., Malmstadt Schumacher, J. R., & Ling, P. M. (2002). Exploring the phenomenon of social smoking: Why do so many young adults social smoke? Paper presented at the National Conference on Tobacco or Health, San Francisco, CA.Google Scholar
Rubinstein, M. L., Benowitz, N. L., Auerback, G. M., & Moscicki, A. B. (2009). Withdrawal in adolescent light smokers following 24-hour abstinence. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 185–189. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntn028Google Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Connell, J. P. (1989). Perceived locus of causality and internalization: examining reasons for acting in two domains. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 749–761. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.57.5.749Google Scholar
Savageau, J. A., Mowery, P. D., & DiFranza, J. R. (2009). Symptoms of diminished autonomy over cigarettes with non-daily use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6, 25–35. doi: 10.3390/ijerph6010025CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schane, R. E., Glantz, S. A., & Ling, P. M. (2009). Nondaily and social smoking: an increasingly prevalent pattern. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169, 1742–1744. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.315Google Scholar
Schane, R. E., Ling, P. M., & Glantz, S. A. (2010). Health effects of light and intermittent smoking: a review. Circulation, 121, 1518–1522. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.904235Google Scholar
Shiffman, S. (2009). Light and intermittent smokers: background and perspective. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 122–125. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntn020Google Scholar
Sutfin, E. L., McCoy, T. P., Berg, C. J., Champion, H., Helme, D. W., et al. (2012). Tobacco use among college students: A comparison of daily and nondaily smokers. American Journal of Health Behavior, 36, 218–229. doi:10.5993/AJHB.36.2.7Google Scholar
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1989). Using Multivariate Statistics. New York, NY: Harper-Collins.Google Scholar
Tindle, H. A., & Shiffman, S. (2011 ). Smoking cessation behavior among intermittent smokers versus daily smokers. American Journal of Public Health, 101, e1–3. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300186Google Scholar
Ursprung, W. W., & DiFranza, J. R. (2010). The loss of autonomy over smoking in relation to lifetime cigarette consumption. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 14–18. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.08.001Google Scholar
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (USDHHS) (2004). The Health Consequences of Smoking: A Report of the Surgeon General. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health.Google Scholar
White, H. R., Bray, B. C., Fleming, C. B., & Catalano, R. F. (2009). Transitions into and out of light and intermittent smoking during emerging adulthood. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 211–219. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntn017Google Scholar
White, V., Mason, T., & Briggs, V. (2009). How do trends in smoking prevalence among Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australian secondary students between 1996 and 2005 compare? Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 33, 147–153. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.2009.00362.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wills, T. A., Sandy, J. M., & Shinar, O. (1999). Cloninger's constructs related to substance use level and problems in late adolescence: a mediational model based on self-control and coping motives. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 7, 122–134. doi:10.1037//1064-1297.7.2.122Google Scholar
Woolcock, A. J., Peat, J. K., Leeder, S. R., & Blackburn, C. R. B. (1984). The development of lung function in Sydney childrenn: Effects of respiratory illness and smoking. A ten year study. European Journal of Respiratory Diseases, 65, 1–97.Google Scholar
Wortley, P. M., Husten, C. G., Trosclair, A., Chrismon, J., & Pederson, L. L. (2003). Nondaily smokers: a descriptive analysis. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 5, 755–759. doi:10.1080/1462220031000158753Google Scholar
Zhu, S. H., Sun, J., Hawkins, S., Pierce, J., & Cummins, S. (2003). A population study of low-rate smokers: quitting history and instability over time. Health Psychology, 22, 245–252. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.22.3.245Google Scholar