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Slave Markets and Exchange in the Malay World: The Sulu Sultanate, 1770–1878

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  07 April 2011

James F. Warren
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Extract

The impact of the West's commercial intrusion in China towards the end of the eighteenth century had significant bearing on the growth of the slave trade in Southeast Asia. It led to the crystallization of a permanent slave traffic around organized markets and depots in the Sulu Archipelago. Jolo Island, as the centre of a redistributive network encompassing the Sulu zone, became the most important slave centre by 1800. This had not always been the case. Most accounts of the Sulu Sultanate written before 1780 indicate that the internal demand for slaves at Jolo was on a much smaller scale than it was destined to become in the nineteenth century. These early writers reported that it was often more profitable for the Taosug, the dominant ethnic group in the Sulu Archipelago, to deliver slaves to the Magindanao and Bugis merchants of Cotabato (Mindanao) and Pasir (Borneo) for trans-shipment to Makassar and Batavia, than employ them in their own settlements.

Type
Articles
Information
Journal of Southeast Asian Studies , Volume 8 , Issue 2 , September 1977 , pp. 162 - 175
Copyright
Copyright © The National University of Singapore 1977

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References

1 The Sulu Zone comprised the Sulu Archipelago, the northeast coast of Borneo, the foreland of southern Mindanao and the western coast of Celebes. See Warren, James F., “Trade, Raid, Slave: The Socio-Economic Patterns of the Sulu Zone, 1770–1898”, Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation (A.N.U., 1975), 6Google Scholar; and Comyn, Tomas, State of the Philippines in 1810 (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1969), pp. 123–124Google Scholar.

2 Decreto numero 9, El Consejo de las Indias, 19 Dec. 1775, AGI, Filipinas 359; de Pages, Pierre Vicomte, “Travels Round the World in the Years 1767, 1768, 1769, 1770, 1771”, Trawl Accounts of the Islands (1513–1787) (Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1971), p. 156Google Scholar; Renourd, Felix, Voyage Commercial et Politique aux Indes Orientals, II (Paris: Clement, 1810), 369Google Scholar; Forrest, Thomas, A Voyage to New Guinea and the Moluccas from Balambangan: including an account of Magindano, Sooloo and other islands (London: A. Scott, 1779), p. 330Google Scholar; Barrantes, Vincente, Guerras Piraticas de Filipinas contra Mindanaos y Joloanos (Madrid: Imprenta de Manual H. Hernandez, 1878). pp. 160–161Google Scholar; and y Vidal, Jose Montero, Historia de Filipinas, II (Madrid: 1894–1895), 369.Google Scholar

3 Expediente 2, El Gobierno Politico y Militar d Zamboanga a El Gobernador Capitan General (hereafter cited as GCG), 30 May 1842 PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1838–1885; Extract from Singapore Free Press, 6 April 1847. PRO Admiralty 125/133.

4 Hunt, , “Some particulars relating to Sulo”, Notices of the Indian Archipelago and Adjacent Countries, ed. Moor, J.H. (London: Cass, 1967), p. 50Google Scholar; Bonham to Maitland, 2 June 1838, PRO Admiralty 125/133.

5 See Appendix XVIII, The Statements of the Fugitive Captives of the Sulu Sultanate, 1836–1864, Warren, thesis cit., 461–483.

6 Ibid.

7 See statements of Juan Santiago and Anastacio Casillo in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890; Relacion jurada de los cuatros cautivos venidos en el navio Ingles de guerra Agincourt, procedente de la Isla de Borneo, 11 Dec. 1845, PNA, Piratas 3; Relacion jurada de los individuas cautivos venidos en la Fragata de guerra Inglesa Samarang procedente de Jolo, 15 Mar. 1845, PNA, Piratas 3; Numero 55, GCG a Senor Secretario de Estado y Despacho de Marina, Comercio, y Gobernacion de Ultramar, 12 Apr. 1845, AHN, Ultramar, 5157; Farren to the Earl of Aberdeen, 4 Dec. 1844, IOL, F/4/2146 (1027730), 7; P.P.H.C, 1851, LVI, Pt. I, 135–136; and Jansen, , “Aantekeningen omtrent Sollok en de Solloksche Zeeroovers”, Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land-en Volkenkunde, uitgegeven door het (Koninklijk) Bataviaasch Geenootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschapen, VII (1858), 216.Google Scholar

8 P.P.H.C, 1851, LVI, Pt. I, 135–136.

9 Numero 7, GCG a Senor Secretario de Estado y del Despacho Universal de Hacienda y Indias, 4 June 1806, AGI, Filipinas 510; William Brownrigs to the British Consul or any European merchant in Sooloo or Manila, 10 Sept. 1844, in enclosure 1, Farren to the Foreign Office, 8 Dec. 1844, FO, 72/663; Dalrymple, Alexander, Oriental Repertory (London: 1808), pp. 559Google Scholar, 564; Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, pp. 368–369; and Barrantes, Guerras Piraticas, p. 161.

10 Dalrymple, Oriental Repertory, pp. 559, 561; Lasker, Bruno, Human Bondage in Southeast Asia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1950), p. 27Google Scholar; and Le Bar, F. (ed.), Ethnic Groups of Insular Southeast Asia, I (New Haven: HRAFP, 1972), 172.Google Scholar

11 Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, pp. 368–369; Pryer to Treacher, 5 Oct. 1881, CO 874/229.

12 Lasker, Human Bondage in Southeast Asia, pp. 26–27.

13 Numero 7, GCG a Senor Secretario de Estado y del Despacho Universal de Hacienda y Indias, 4 June 1806, AGI, Filipinas 510; and Barrantes, Guerras Piraticas, p. 161.

14 Alcalde Mayor de Zamboanga a Senor Gobernador General de Mindanao y Adjacentes, 9 Nov. 1868, PNA, unclassified Mindanao/Sulu bundle; Numero 180, El Gobernador Politico y Militar de las Isla de Mindanao y adjacentes a GCG, 28 July 1872, PNA, Piratas I; and Straits Times Overland Journal, XX, 31 Oct. 1879.

15 Treacher, William, “Sketches of Brunai, Sarawak, Labuan and North Borneo” Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, XXI (1890), 90.Google Scholar

16 Diary of William Pryer, 6 Apr. 1878, CO 874/67; Diary of William Pryer, 16 Aug. 1878, 9 Mar. 1879, CO 874/68; Pryer to Treacher, 5 Oct. 1881, CO 874/229; Bock, Carl, The Headhunters of Borneo: A Narrative of travel up the Mahakam and down the Barito (London: Sampson Low, 1882), p. 201Google Scholar; and Hatton, Joseph, The New Ceylon (London: 1881), p. 91.Google Scholar

17 Numero 151, Carlos Cuarteron, prefecto apostalico, a GCG, 25 Dec. 1878, PNA, Isla de Borneo 1; Witti to Treacher, Nov. 1881, CO 874/229; Treacher to Chairman of the British North Borneo Company, 8 May 1882, CO 874/230.

18 Pryer to Treacher, 15 Oct. 1881, CO 874/229; and Treacher, “Sketches of North Borneo”, 91.

19 Hill women were sold to the Cotabato Chinese for more than 50 pesos each in the 1880's. The Spanish claimed that most Chinese households in the town had at least fourteen slaves, mostly women and children. Govierno Politico y Militar de Cotabato a GCG, 3 Sept. 1884, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1875–1899; Wickberg, E., The Chinese in Philippine Life 1850–1898 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), p. 92Google Scholar; and Ileto, R., Magindanao, 1860–1888: The Career of Datu Uto of Buayan (Data Paper No. 82. Southeast Asia Programme, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York: 1971), p. 31Google Scholar.

20 In 1881 it was said that half a dozen able-bodied Bilaan Men could be purchased from Magindanao or Iranun dealers for one picul (23 dollars). Witti to Treacher, Nov. 1881, CO 874/229.

21 The Diary of William Pryer, 14 Mar. 1878, CO 874; Diary of William Pryer, 23–26 Nov. 1878, 30 Nov. 1878, 27 Dec. 1878, 3 Mar. 1879, 27 June 1879, CO 874/68; Diary of William Pryer, 17 Aug. 1879, 20 Aug. 1879, 3 Nov. 1880, CO 874/69; Pryer to Treacher, 5 Oct. 1881, CO 874/229; Gobierno General de Filipinas a Senor Gobernador Politico Militar de Jolo, 27 Mar. 1885, PNA, unclassified Mindanao/Sulu bundle; Numero 68, Gobierno Politico y Militar de las Isla de Mindanao y adjacentes a GCG, 14 July 1892, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1864–1898; and Gobierno Politico y Militar del 6 districto de Mindanao a Senor Gobernador General Politico y Militar de Mindanao, 20 Apr. 1896, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1875–1899.

22 Pryer claimed that many of these slaves were being transported on European vessels: ‘Stopping the importation of slaves should not be a difficult matter. It is very clear that British ships are in nine cases out of ten, the means by which they are introduced…’x, Pryer to Treacher, 5 Oct. 1881 CO 874/229

23 Extract from Singapore Free Press, 6 Apr. 1847, PRO, Admiralty 125/133.

24 United States Senate Documents, 56th Congress, 2nd Session, 1900–1901, document 218, p. 26; Spenser St. John described his Tagalog steersman, who was captured by the Balangingi when a young boy and raised as a Muslim: ‘Musa, though modest and gentle in his manner, was brave as a lion, and would have followed me anywhere. Though very short, he was squarely built, and exceedingly strong, a very powerful swimmer, and good boatman.’ Life in the Forests of the Far East, II (London: Smith Elder and Company, 1862), 163Google Scholar; and Bernaldez, Emilio, Resana Historico de La Guerra a Sur de Filipinos (Madrid: Imprenta del Memorial de Ingenieros, 1857), p. 36.Google Scholar

25 Kolf, D. H., Voyage of the Dutch Brig of War Dourga, through the southern and little known parts of the Moluccan Archipelago and the previously unknown southern coast of New Guinea performed during the years 1825 and 1826. Translated by Earl, George Windsor (London: James Madden, 1840), p. 300Google Scholar; and “Short Accounts of Timor, Rotti, Savu, Solor”, Moor, Notices of the Indian Archipelago, 11.

26 Hunt, “Some particulars relating to Sulo,” p. 37; United States Senate Documents, Vol. XV, document 218, 64; and St. John, Life in the Forests of the Far East, I, 250.

27 El Obispo de Zebu a Senor Don Joseph Galvez, del consejo de Estado Su Magestad su secretario del Despacho Universal de Indias y Gobernador del Real y Supremo Consejo, 22 May 1779, AGI, Filipinas 687.

28 Kolff, Cruise of the Dutch Warship Dourga, p. 300.

29 “Adventures of C. Z. Pieters among the Pirates of Magindanao”, Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (1858), 303.

30 Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890; see also statements of Evaristo Pinto and Francisco Xavier and Appendix XVIII in Warren, thesis cit., 461–483.

31 See Appendix XVIII in Warren, thesis cit., 461–483.

32 Table 1 has been compiled from two sets of statements. Numero 52, GCG a Senor Ministro de la Guerra y de Ultramar, 4 Sept. 1862, AHN, Ultramar 5190; and Numero 105, GCG a Senor Ministro de la Guerra, AHN, Ultramar 5192.

33 For a shorter list of captives (14) that reinforces the trend in the table but concentrates on the pre-1855 period, see Relacion de los cautivos presentados abordo de las faluas del crucero a las Islas Samalese en la noche del 5 del mes de la fecha, Gobierno Politico y Militar de la Provincia de Zamboanga, 26 Mar 1853, AHN, Ultramar 5172; and Numero 56, El Ministro de Estado manifiesta que Embajador del Rey de los Paises Bajo ha dirigido una nota dando gracias a la autoridad superior de Zamboanga, por haber rescatado de porder de los piratas a nueve subditos neerlandeses, 20 Apr. 1854, AHN, Ultramar 5161.

34 Witti to Treacher, 1 Nov. 1881, CO 874/229.

35 Testemonio del expediente mandado instruir por real Cedula de 22 Octubre de 1799 enclosed in Mumero 7, GCG a Senor Secretario de Estado y del Despacho Universal de Hacienda y Indias, 4 June 1806, AGI, Filipinas 510.

36 Extract from Singapore Free Press, 6 Apr. 1847, PRO, Admiralty 125/133.

37 Witti to Treacher, Nov. 1881, CO 874/229.

38 Cautivos rescatados en el Rio de Pandasan por la mision de Labuan y Borneo, Numero 18, 1877, PNA, Isla de Borneo 2; Forrest, Voyage to New Guinea, p. 229; and “Adventures of C. Z. Pieters among the Pirates of Magindanao”, 309.

39 This Table has been compiled from captive statements in the following sources: Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836; PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890; and Relacion jurada de los seis cautivos venidos de Jolo sobre el bergantin Espanol San Vincente enclosed in Numero 1673, Capitania del Puerto de Manila y Cavite a GCG, 14 Jan. 1850, PNA, Piratas 3.

40 See the statements of Domingo Candelario, Augustin Juan, Mariano Sevilla and Juan Santiago in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890; and Expediente 2, El Gobierno Politico y Militar del Zamboango a GCG, 30 May 1842, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1838–1885.

41 Statement of Juan Santiago in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890.

42 Statement of Mariano Sevilla in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890.

43 Jansen, “Aantekeningen omtrent Sollok en de Solloksche Zeeroovers”, 224.

44 Relacion jurada de los cuarenta ya cinco cautivos venidos de Jolo sobre el Bergantin Espanol Cometa, 19 Mar. 1847, PNA, Piratas 3.

45 Table 3 has been compiled from statements of fugitive captives in Relacion jurada de los cuarenta y cinco cautivos venidos de Jolo sobre el Bergantin Cometa, PNA, Piratas 3; see also the statements of Juan Monico and Francisco Feliz in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890.

46 See Appendix XVIII in Warren, thesis cit. particularly the statements of Evaristo Pinto, Pedro Santiago and Vincente Remigio in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu, 1803–1890; “Adventures of C.Z. Pieters among the Pirates of Magindanao”, 309–310.

47 Juan Cencelli a Senor Conde Aranda, 16 Apr. 1774, AHN, Estado 2845, caja 2.

48 Enclosure 12, deposition of Si-Ayer in St. John to Viscount Palmerston, 19 Feb. 1852, P.P.H.C, XXXI, Borneo Piracy, 487.

49 Prefettura Apostalico de Labuan Su Dipendenze ECC. nella Malesia Orientale, Carlos Cuarteron, 10 Nov. 1878, PNA, Isla de Borneo 1; see also statement of Simona Plasa in Expediente 34, Gobernador Militar y Politico de la Provincia de Zamboanga a GCG, 1 Feb. 1852, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1838–1885; and Verklaring van Chrishaan Soerma, 10 Aug. 1846, ANRI, Menado 50.

50 Most of the estimates ranged from 750–1500 slaves per year. Decreto numero 9, El Consejo de las Indias, 19 Dec. 1775, AGI, Filipinas 359; Farren to the Earl of Aberdeen, 20 Jan. 1846, PRO, FO 72/708; Webb to Lord Russell, 24 Oct. 1864, FO 71/1; Hunt, “Some particulars relating to Sulo”, 51–52; Bernaldez, Guerra al Sur, p. 147; and J. Montano, “Une Mission aux iles Malaises”, Bulletin, Societe de Geographic (1881), 472.

51 El Gobernador Politico y Militar de Zamboanga a GCG, 30 May 1842, PNA, Mindanao/ Sulu 1838–1885; Expediente 12, sobre haber salido la expedicion contra Balangingi, 17 Feb. 1845, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1836–1897; information obtained by Charles Grey at Singapore from Mr. Wyndham relating to Sulo, 24 Feb. 1847, PRO, Admiralty 125/133; and Van Hoevell, , “De Zeerooverijen der Soloerezen”, Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indie, II (1850), 102.Google Scholar

52 This Table has been compiled from the following sources: statements of captives in Expediente 12, 4 Oct. 1836, PNA, Mindanao/Sulu 1803–1890; Relacion jurada de los cuarenta y cuatro cautivos venidos sobre el Bergantin Cometa procedente de Jolo y Zamboanga, 8 Feb. 1848, PNA, Piratas 3.

53 John, Spenser St., “Piracy in the Indian Archipelago”, Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia, III (1849), 258.Google Scholar

54 Farren to Palmerston, 16 March 1851, CO 144/8.

55 For a precise calculation on slave imports to Sulu between 1770–1870 I have used the figure 20–5 slaves per boat based on the statements of slaves seized between 1826–1847 minus 4,800 to 8,000 slaves (1,200 to 2,000 per year) for the period 1848–1852. From the calculations it, therefore, follows that the number of slaves imported over the period 1770–1870 varied from a low estimate of 201,350 to a high estimate of 302,575.