¹ The author expresses her gratitude for suggestions for revisions of this article to James Barrett, Jacob H. Dorn, and Richard Schneirov.

² See, for example, Green, James R., “The ‘Salesmen-Soldiers’ of the Appeal Army: A Profile of Rank and File Socialist Agitators,” in Socialism and the Cities, ed., Stave, Bruce M. (Port Washington. NY, 1975): 13–40.Google Scholar

³ Debs, Eugene V., “Enfranchisement of Womanhood,” Progressive Woman 22 (March 1909): 5.Google Scholar The most influential work by Marx and Engels, published after the death of Marx, on the exploitation of women was Engels, Friedrich, The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (New York, 1942).Google Scholar Also essential reading is another German Marxist pathbreaking work on women's lack of equality, Bebel, August, Woman and Socialism (New York, 1910).Google Scholar Of additional interest is an article by a son-in-law of Marx, Lafargue, Paul, “The Woman Question,” International Socialist Review 5 (March 1905): 547–59.Google Scholar

⁴ Debs, Eugene V., “A Letter from Debs on Immigration,” International Socialist Review 11 (July 1910): 17.Google Scholar

⁵ Debs, Eugene V., “The Negro in the Class Struggle,” International Socialist Review 4 (November 1903): 168.Google Scholar Also see Walling, William English, “The Founding of the NAACP,” Crisis 36 (July 1929): 226Google Scholar and Ovington, Mary White, The Walls Came Tumbling Down (New York, 1947).Google Scholar

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⁷ Socialist Party, Official Bulletin 4 (June 1908): 1Google Scholar; ibid. 5 (May 1909): 1; ibid. 6 (May 1910): 4; ibid. 7 (October 1910): 1; ibid. 8 (August 1911): 5; Party Builder (January 23, 1914): 5; Sally M. Miller, “Women in the Party Bureaucracy: Subservient Functionaries,” in Miller, , Flawed Liberation, 15–18.Google Scholar

⁸ Socialist Party, Official Bulletin 5 (June 1909) 4Google Scholar; ibid. 7 (October 1910): 1; ibid. (December 1910): 2; ibid. 9 (February 1913): 2.

⁹ Simons, May Wood, “Aims and Purposes of Women [sic] Committee,” Progressive Woman 29 (October 1909): 2Google Scholar; Woman's National Committee, “Plan for Work for Women in Socialist Locals” (Chicago, 1913)Google Scholar; Party Builder (August 28, 1912):3; ibid. (December 25, 1912): 2; ibid. (May 31,1913): 2. See also Miller, Sally M., “Other Socialists: Native-born and Immigrant Women in the Socialist Party of America, 1901–1917,” Labor History 24 (Winter 1983): 84–102.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

¹⁰ Socialist Party, Official Bulletin 6 (January 1910): 4Google Scholar; ibid. 8 (August 1912): 8; Party Builder (March 7, 1914): 5; Woman's Department Report in Socialist Party, Proceedings of the 1912 National Convention (Chicago, 1912), 204–05.Google Scholar The three women elected to the National Executive Committee, all of whom were exceedingly popular party activists, were Lena Morrow Lewis in 1909, Kate Richards O'Hare in 1911, and Anna A. Maley in 1916.

¹¹ The best way to trace arguments over the dissolution of the Woman's National Committee is to review the weekly issues of the American Socialist from January to September, 1915. The dissolution of the WNC after a few years of operation paralleled the earlier fate of official woman's programming of the German Social Democratic Party. See on this topic, Jean Quataert, Reluctant Feminists in German Social Democracy, 1885–1917 (Princeton, 1979).

¹² Buhle, , Women and American Socialism, 304–13Google Scholar; Baron, Ava, “Gender and Labor History: Learning from the Past, Looking to the Future,” in Work Engendered: Toward a New History of American Labor, ed., Baron, Ava (Ithaca, NY, 1991): 11–24Google Scholar; see also for perceptive analysis of this topic, Milkman, Ruth, Gender at Work: the Dynamics of Job Segregation by Sex in World War II (Urbana, 1987).Google Scholar

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¹⁶ Leinenweber, “The American Socialist Party,” 258–61; Kipnis, , The American Socialist Movement, 272–76Google Scholar; Miller, Sally M., “Germans on the Mississippi: the Socialist Party of St. Louis,” in Race, Ethnicity and Gender in Early Twentieth-Century American Socialism, ed., Miller, Sally M. (New York, 1996): 77.Google Scholar Most of the foreign-language federations included women, from a high of 33 percent in the Finnish Federation, 15 percent among the Germans and Scandinavians to 1 percent among the South Slavs and Italians.

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