Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-94fs2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-14T04:21:49.525Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Cognitive development after traumatic brain injury in young children

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 October 2009

AIMEE GERRARD-MORRIS ,
H. GERRY TAYLOR ,
KEITH OWEN YEATES ,
NICOLAY CHERTKOFF WALZ ,
TERRY STANCIN ,
NORI MINICH  and
SHARI L. WADE
AIMEE GERRARD-MORRIS
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University and University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
H. GERRY TAYLOR*
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University and University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
KEITH OWEN YEATES
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University, and The Research Institute at Nationwide Children’s Hospital, Columbus, Ohio
NICOLAY CHERTKOFF WALZ
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
TERRY STANCIN
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, MetroHealth Medical Center and Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio
NORI MINICH
Affiliation:
Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University and University Hospitals Case Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio
SHARI L. WADE
Affiliation:
Department of Rehabilitation, Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center and University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
*
*Correspondence and reprint requests to: H. Gerry Taylor, Division of Developmental/Behavioral Pediatrics and Psychology, W.O. Walker Building Suite 3150, 10524 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106. E-mail: hgt2@case.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The primary aims of this study were to examine post-injury cognitive development in young children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) and to investigate the role of the proximal family environment in predicting cognitive outcomes. Age at injury was 3–6 years, and TBI was classified as severe (n = 23), moderate (n = 21), and complicated mild (n = 43). A comparison group of children who sustained orthopedic injuries (OI, n = 117) was also recruited. Child cognitive assessments were administered at a post-acute baseline evaluation and repeated at 6, 12, and 18 months post-injury. Assessment of the family environment consisted of baseline measures of learning support and stimulation in the home and of parenting characteristics observed during videotaped parent–child interactions. Relative to the OI group, children with severe TBI group had generalized cognitive deficiencies and those with less severe TBI had weaknesses in visual memory and executive function. Although deficits persisted or emerged across follow-up, more optimal family environments were associated with higher scores for all injury groups. The findings confirm other reports of poor recovery of cognitive skills following early childhood TBI and suggest environmental influences on outcomes. (JINS, 2010, 16, 157–168.)

Keywords

Head injuriesoutcomesChild developmentChildPreschoolBrain injuriesNeurobehavioral manifestationsRecovery of function
Type
Research Articles
Information
Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society , Volume 16 , Issue 1 , January 2010 , pp. 157 - 168
Copyright
Copyright © The International Neuropsychological Society 2009

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Anderson, V., & Catroppa, C. (2005). Recovery of executive skills following paediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI): A 2 year follow-up. Brain Injury, 19, 459–470.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V.A., Catroppa, C., Dudgeon, P., Morse, S.A., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J.V. (2006). Understanding predictors of functional recovery and outcome 30 months following early childhood head injury. Neuropsychology, 20, 42–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V.A., Catroppa, C., Morse, S., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J. (2005a). Attentional and processing skills following traumatic brain injury in early childhood. Brain Injury, 19, 699–710.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V.A., Catroppa, C., Morse, S., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J. (2005b). Functional plasticity or vulnerability after early brain injury? Pediatrics, 116, 1374–1382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V., Catroppa, C., Morse, S., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J. (2005c). Identifying factors contributing to child and family outcome at 30 months following traumatic brain injury in children. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76, 401–408.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, V., Catroppa, C., Morse, S., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J. (2000a). Recovery of intellectual ability following traumatic brain injury in childhood: Impact of injury severity and age at injury. Pediatric Neurosurgery, 32, 282–290.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V.A., Catroppa, C., Rosenfeld, J., Haritou, F., & Morse, S.A. (2000b). Recovery of memory function following traumatic brain injury in pre-school children. Brain Injury, 14, 679–692.Google ScholarPubMed
Anderson, V.A., Morse, S.A., Catroppa, C., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J.V. (2004). Thirty month outcome from early childhood head injury: A prospective analysis of neurobehavioural recovery. Brain, 127, 2608–2620.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, M.A., & Dennis, M. (2001). Knowledge-based inferencing after childhood head injury. Brain and Language, 76, 253–265.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barnes, M.A., Dennis, M., & Wilkinson, M. (1999). Reading after closed head injury in childhood: Effects on accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Developmental Neuropsychology, 15, 1–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bittigau, P., Sifringer, M., Pohl, D., Stadrhaus, D., Ishimaru, M., Shimizu, H., et al. (1999). Apoptotic neurodegeneration following trauma is markedly enhanced in the immature brain. Annals of Neurology, 45, 724–735.3.0.CO;2-P>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blaire, C. (2006). How similar are fluid cognition and general intelligence? A developmental neuroscience perspective on fluid cognition as an aspect of human cognitive ability. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 29, 109–160.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R.H., Caldwell, B.M., Rock, S.L., Ramey, C.T., Barnard, K.E., Gray, C., et al. (1989). Home environment and cognitive development in the first 3 years of life: A collaborative study involving six sites and three ethnic groups in North America. Developmental Psychology, 25, 217–235.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bradley, R.H., & Corwyn, R.F. (2002). Socioeconomic status and child development. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 371–399.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bradley, R.H., Corwyn, R.F., Caldwell, B.M., Whiteside-Mansell, L., Wasserman, G.A., & Mink, I.T. (2000). Measuring the home environments of children in early adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 247–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Braga, L.W., Da Paz, A.C., & Ylvisaker, M. (2005). Direct clinician versus indirect family-supported rehabilitation of children with traumatic brain injury: A randomized clinical trial. Brain Injury, 19, 819–831.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brenner, T., Freier, M.C., Holshouser, B.A., Burley, T., & Ashwal, S. (2003). Predicting neuropsychologic outcome after traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatric Neurology, 28, 104–114.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H.D., Susser, E.S., Matte, T., Liang, K., & Peterson, E.L. (2001). Stability and change in children’s intelligence quotient scores: A comparison of two socioeconomically disparate communities. American Journal of Epidemiology, 154, 711–717.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burchinal, M.R., Roberts, J.E., Hooper, S., & Zeisel, S.A. (2000). Cumulative risk and early cognitive development: A comparison of statistical risk models. Developmental Psychology, 36, 793–807.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Caldwell, B.M., & Bradley, R.H. (2000). HOME Inventory Administrative Manual. Little Rock, AR: Print Design.Google Scholar
Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (2000). Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language: Manual. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.Google Scholar
Catroppa, C., & Anderson, V. (2005). A prospective study of the recovery of attention from acute to 2 years post pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 84–98.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Catroppa, C., Anderson, V.A., Morse, S.A., Haritou, F., & Rosenfeld, J.V. (2007). Children’s attentional skills 5 years post-TBI. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 32, 354–369.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chadwick, O., Rutter, M., Brown, G., Shaffer, D., & Traub, M. (1981). A prospective study of children with head injuries: II. Cognitive sequelae. Psychological Medicine, 11, 49–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
Collins, W.A., Maccoby, E.E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E.M., & Bornstein, M.H. (2000). Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55, 218–232.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Conger, R.D., & Donnellan, M.B. (2007). An interactionist perspective on the socioeconomic context of human development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 175–199.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dennis, M. (1988). Language and the young damaged brain. In Boll, T. & Bryant, B.K. (Eds.), The Master Lecture Series: Clinical Neuropsychology and Brain Function: Research Measurement and Practice (pp. 89–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dennis, M., Guger, S., Roncadin, C., Barnes, M., & Schachar, R. (2001). Attentional-inhibitory control and social-behavioral regulation after childhood closed head injury: Do biological, developmental, and recovery variables predict outcome? Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 683–692.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Donders, J., & Giroux, A. (2005). Discrepancies between the California Verbal Learning Test: Children’s version and the children’s category test after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 11, 386–391.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Elliott, C. (1990). Differential Ability Scales: Introductory and Technical Handbook. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Espy, K.A. (1997). The Shape School: Assessing executive function in preschool children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 13, 495–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Espy, K.A., Molfese, V.J., & DiLalla, L.F. (2001). Effects of environmental measures on intelligence in young children: Growth curve modeling of longitudinal data. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 42–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ewing-Cobbs, L., & Barnes, M. (2002). Linguistic outcomes following traumatic brain injury in children. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 9, 209–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ewing-Cobbs, L., Barnes, M., Fletcher, J.M., Levin, H.S., Swank, P.R., & Song, J. (2004a). Modeling of longitudinal academic achievement scores after pediatric traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 107–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ewing-Cobbs, L., Fletcher, J.M., Levin, H.S., Francis, D.J., Davidson, K., & Miner, M.E. (1997). Longitudinal neuropsychological outcomes in infants and preschoolers with traumatic brain injury. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 581–591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ewing-Cobbs, L., Prasad, M.R., Kramer, L., Cox, C.S. Jr., Baumgartner, J., Fletcher, S., et al. (2006). Late intellectual and academic outcomes following traumatic brain injury sustained during early childhood. Journal of Neurosurgery, 105, 2887–2896.Google ScholarPubMed
Ewing-Cobbs, L., Prasad, M.R., Landry, S.H., Kramer, L., & DeLeon, R. (2004b). Executive functions following traumatic brain injury in young children: A preliminary analysis. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26, 487–512.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eyberg, S.M. (1988). Parent-child interaction therapy: Integration of traditional and behavioral concerns. Child and Family Behavioral Therapy, 22, 33–46.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Farah, M.J., Shera, D.M., Savage, J.H., Betancourt, L., Giannetta, J.M., Brodsky, N.L., et al. (2006). Childhood poverty: Specific associations with neurocognitive development. Brain Research, 1110, 166–174.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Federal Financial Institutions Examinations Council Geocoding System. (2005). http://www.ffiec.gov/Geocode/default.htm. Accessed January 1, 2005–November 1, 2005.Google Scholar
Fiese, B.H. (2001). Family matters: A systems view of family effects on children’s cognitive health. In Sternberg, R.J. & Grigorenko, E.L. (Eds.), Environmental Effects on Cognitive Abilities (pp. 39–57). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Fletcher, J.M., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Miner, M., Levin, H., & Eisenberg, H. (1990). Behavioral changes after closed head injury in children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 58, 93–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Francis, D.J., Fletcher, J.M., Stuebing, K.K., Davidson, K.C., & Thompson, N.M. (1991). Analysis of change: Modeling individual growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 27–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldstrohm, S.L., & Arffa, S. (2005). Preschool children with mild to moderate traumatic brain injury: An exploration of immediate and post-acute morbidity. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20, 675–695.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gronwall, D., Wrightson, P., & McGinn, V. (1997). Effect of mild head injury during the preschool years. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 592–597.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Keenan, H.T., Hooper, S.R., Wetherington, C.E., Nocera, M., & Runyan, D.K. (2007). Neurodevelopmental consequences of early traumatic brain injury in 3-year-old children. Pediatrics, 119, 616–623.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Korkman, M., Kirk, U., & Kemp, S. (1998). NEPSY—A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar
Landry, S.H., Chapieski, M.L., Richardson, M.A., Palmer, J., & Hall, S. (1990). The social competence of children born prematurely: Effects of medical complications and parent behaviors. Child Development, 61, 1605–1616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S.H., Garner, P.W., Swank, P.R., & Baldwin, C. (1996). Effects of maternal scaffolding during joint toy play with preterm and full-term infants. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 42, 177–199.Google Scholar
Landry, S.H., Miller-Loncar, C.L., Smith, K.E., & Swank, P.R. (2002). The role early parenting in children’s development executive processes. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21, 15–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., Miller-Loncar, C.L., & Swank, P. (1997). Predicting cognitive- language and social growth curves from early maternal behaviors in children at varying degrees of biological risk. Developmental Psychology, 33, 1040–1053.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., Miller-Loncar, C.L., & Swank, P. (1998). The relation of change in maternal interactive styles to the developing social competence of full-term and preterm children. Child Development, 69, 105–123.Google Scholar
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., & Swank, P.R. (2003). The importance of parenting during early childhood for school-age development. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24, 559–591.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., & Swank, P.R. (2006). Responsive parenting: Establishing early foundations for social, communication, and independent problem-solving skills. Developmental Psychology, 42, 627–642.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Landry, S.H., Smith, K.E., Swank, P.R., Assel, M.A., & Vellet, S. (2001). Does early responsive parenting have a special importance for children’s development or is consistency across early childhood necessary? Developmental Psychology, 37, 387–403.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Langlois, J.A., Rutland-Brown, W., & Thomas, K.E. (2006). Traumatic Brain Injury in the United States: Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control.Google Scholar
Levin, H.S., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Eisenberg, H.M. (1995). Neurobehavioral outcome of pediatric head injury. In Broman, S. & Michel, M.E. (Eds.), Traumatic Head Injury in Children (pp. 70–94). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Levin, H.S., & Hanten, G. (2005). Executive functions after traumatic brain injury in children. Pediatric Neurology, 33, 79–93.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Levin, H.S., Hanten, G., Roberson, G., Li, X., Ewing-Cobbs, L., Dennis, M., et al. (2008). Prediction of cognitive sequelae based on abnormal computed tomography findings in children following mild traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurosurgery: Pediatrics, 1, 461–470.Google ScholarPubMed
Max, J.E., Lindgren, S.D., Robin, D.A., Smith, W.L., Sato, Y., Mattheis, P.J., et al. (1997). Traumatic brain injury in children and adolescents: Psychiatric disorders in the second three months. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disorders, 185, 394–401.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McLoyd, V.C. (1998). Socioeconomic disadvantage and child development. American Psychologist, 53, 185–204.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Murray, A.D., & Hornbaker, A.V. (1997). Maternal directive and facilitative interaction styles: Associations with language and cognitive development of low risk and high risk toddlers. Development and Psychopathology, 9, 507–516.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Noble, K.G., Norman, M.F., & Farah, M.J. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science, 8, 74–87.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parslow, R.C., Morris, K.P., Tasker, R.C., Forsyth, R.J., & Hawley, C.A. (2005). Epidemiology of traumatic brain injury in children receiving intensive care in the UK. Archives of Diseases of Childhood, 90, 1182–1187.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Murray, R., & Eaves, L. (2001). Testing hypotheses on specific environmental causal effects on behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 291–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Serra-Grabulosa, J.M., Junque, C., Verger, K., Salgado-Pineda, P., Maneru, C., & Mercader, J.M. (2005). Cerebral correlates of declarative memory dysfunctions in early traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 76, 129–131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Singer, J.D. (1998). Using SAS PROC MIXED to fit multilevel models, hierarchical models, and individual growth models. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 23, 323–355.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Slomine, B.S., Gerring, J.P., Grados, M.A., Vasa, R., Brady, K.D., Christensen, J.R., et al. (2002). Performance on measures of ‘executive function’ following pediatric traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 16, 759–772.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Smith, K.E., Landry, S.H., & Swank, P.R. (2000). Does the content of mothers’ verbal stimulation explain differences in children’s development of verbal and nonverbal cognitive skills? Journal of School Psychology, 38, 27–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stiles, J., Reilly, J., Paul, B., & Moses, P. (2005). Cognitive development following early brain injury: Evidence for neural adaptation. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G. (2004). Research on outcomes of pediatric traumatic brain injury: Current advances and future directions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25, 199–225.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., & Alden, J. (1997). Age-related differences in outcomes following childhood brain insults: An introduction and overview. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 1–13.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., Minich, N.M., Klein, N., & Hack, M. (2004). Longitudinal outcomes of very low birth weight: Neuropsychological findings. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 10, 149–163.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., Schatschneider, C., & Minich, N.M. (2000). Longitudinal outcomes of Haemophilus influenzae meningitis in school-age children. Neuropsychology, 14, 509–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., Swartwout, M.D., Yeates, K.O., Walz, N.C., Stancin, T., & Wade, S.L. (2008). Traumatic brain injury in young children: Post-acute effects on cognitive and school readiness skills. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 14, 1–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taylor, H.G., Yeates, K.O., Wade, S.L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Burant, C. (2001). Bidirectional child-family influences on outcomes of traumatic brain injury in children. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 7, 755–767.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., Yeates, K.O., Wade, S.L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Klein, S. (1999). Influences on first-year recovery from traumatic brain injury in children. Neuropsychology, 13, 76–89.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Taylor, H.G., Yeates, K.O., Wade, S.L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Minich, N. (2002). A prospective study of long- and short-term outcomes after traumatic brain injury in children: Behavior and achievement. Neuropsychology, 16, 15–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teasdale, G., & Jennett, B. (1974). Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness: A practical scale. Lancet, 2, 81–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Verger, K., Junque, C., Jurado, M.A., Tresserras, P., Bartumeus, F., Nogues, P., et al. (2000). Age effects on long-term neuropsychological outcome in paediatric traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury, 14, 495–503.Google ScholarPubMed
Wade, S.L., Oberjohn, K., Burhardt, A., & Greenberg, K. (2009). Feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a web-based parenting skills program for young children with traumatic brain injury. Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 24, 242–250.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wade, S.L., Taylor, H.G., Walz, N.C., Salisbury, S., Stancin, T., Bernard, L.A., et al. (2008). Parent-child interactions during the initial weeks following brain injury in young children. Rehabilitation Psychology, 53, 180–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wilde, E.A., Chu, Z., Bigler, E.D., Hunter, J.V., Fearing, M.A., Hanten, G., et al. (2006). Diffusion tensor imaging in the corpus callosum in children after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 2, 1412–1426.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodcock, R.W., McGrew, K.S., & Mather, N. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement. Itasca, IL: Riverside.Google Scholar
Yeates, K.O. (2000). Pediatric closed-head injury. In Yeates, K.O., Ris, M.D., & Taylor, H.G. (Eds.), Pediatric Neuropsychology: Research, Theory, and Practice (pp. 92–116). New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Yeates, K.O., Bigler, E.D., Dennis, M., Gerhardt, C.A., Rubin, K.H., Stancin, T., et al. (2007). Social outcomes in childhood brain disorder: A heuristic integration of social neuroscience and developmental psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 535–556.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yeates, K.O., Taylor, H.G., Drotar, D., Wade, S.L., Klein, S., Stancin, T., et al. (1997). Pre- injury family environment as a determinant of recovery from traumatic brain injuries in school-age children. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 3, 617–630.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeates, K.O., Taylor, H.G., Wade, S.L., Drotar, D., Stancin, T., & Minich, N. (2002). A prospective study of short- and long-term neuropsychological outcomes after traumatic brain injury in children. Neuropsychology, 16, 514–523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar