Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-27T08:48:22.310Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The ‘Blue Gym’: What can blue space do for you and what can you do for blue space?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 January 2016

M.P. White ,
S. Pahl ,
B.W. Wheeler ,
L.E.F. Fleming  and
M.H. Depledge
M.P. White*
Affiliation:
European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK
S. Pahl
Affiliation:
European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK School of Psychology, Plymouth University, Portland Square, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK
B.W. Wheeler
Affiliation:
European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK
L.E.F. Fleming
Affiliation:
European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK
M.H. Depledge
Affiliation:
European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK
*
Correspondence should be addressed to:M.P. White, European Centre for Environment and Human Health, University of Exeter Medical School, Knowledge Spa, Royal Cornwall Hospital, Truro TR1 3HD, UK email: mathew.white@exeter.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

The Blue Gym Initiative was created in the UK in 2009 to explore: (1) whether blue space environments might be positively related to human health and well-being; and (2) whether the public could be encouraged to preserve and protect these environments. Whilst the wider initiative considers all blue spaces including inland bodies of water (e.g. lakes, rivers and canals as well as the coasts and oceans), to date the focus has been primarily on marine and coastal environments. In this paper, we provide a brief history of the Blue Gym Initiative, and outline some of the research that has emerged to date. An important early finding was the observation that individuals living near the coast are generally healthier and happier than those living inland; much subsequent work has tried to understand why this might be. More recently we have begun to focus on how to promote pro-marine behaviours (e.g. sustainable fish choice, reduction of plastic use, avoidance of littering). This strand is still very much work in progress but highlights the importance of understanding public awareness, values and attitudes and the power of visualization in communicating the marine sustainability issues. We conclude with a brief discussion of some of the implications of the findings and future research needs.

Keywords

Blue spaceHealth and well-beingPro-marine behaviours
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom , Volume 96 , Issue 1: Oceans and Human Health , February 2016 , pp. 5 - 12
Copyright
Copyright © Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 2016 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ashbullby, K.J., Pahl, S., Webley, P. and White, M.P. (2013) The beach as a setting for families’ health promotion: a qualitative study with parents and children living in coastal regions in Southwest England. Health and Place 23, 138–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauman, A., Smith, B., Stoker, L., Bellew, B. and Booth, M. (1999) Geographical influences upon physical activity participation: evidence of a ‘coastal effect’. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health 23, 322–324.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bowen, R.E., Depledge, M.H., Carlarne, C.P. and Fleming, L.E. (eds) (2014) Oceans and human health: implications for society and well-being. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Brereton, F., Clinch, J.P. and Ferreira, S. (2008) Happiness, geography and the environment. Ecological Economics 65, 386–396.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cherrie, M.P.C., Wheeler, B., White, M.P., Sarran, C.E. and Osborne, N.J. (2015) Coastal climate is associated with elevated solar irradiance and higher 25(OH)D level in coastal residents. Environment International 77, 76–84.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collett, I. (2010) Portrait of EU coastal regions. Eurostat: Statistics in focus. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/eurstatGoogle Scholar
Depledge, M.H. and Bird, W.J. (2009) The Blue Gym: health and wellbeing from our coasts. Marine Pollution Bulletin 58, 947–948.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dietz, T., Abel, T., Guagnano, G.A. and Kalof, L. (1999) A value-belief-norm theory of support of social movements: the case of environmentalism. Human Ecology Review 6, 81–97.Google Scholar
DiGiulio, R.T. and Monosson, E. (1996) Interconnections between human and ecosystem health. London: Chapman & Hall.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eastman, L., Nunez, P.N., Crettier, B. and Thiel, M. (2013) Identification of self-reported user behaviour, education level, and preferences to reduce littering on beaches – a survey from the SE-Pacific. Ocean and Coastal Management 78, 18–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
European Environment Agency (2007) Marine and coastal environment. In Europe's environment: the fourth assessment. Available at http://www.eea.europa.eu//publications/state_of_environment_report_2007_1Google Scholar
Fleming, L.E., Depledge, M.H., McDonough, N., White, M.P., Pahl, S., Austin, M., Goksoyr, A., Solo-Gabriele, H. and Stegman, J.J. (2015) The oceans and human health. In Oxford research encyclopedia of environmental sciences. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fleming, L.E., McDonough, N., Austen, M., Mee, L., Moore, M., Depledge, M., White, M.P., Philippart, K., Bradbrook, P. and Smalley, A. (2014) Oceans and human health: a rising tide of challenges and opportunities for Europe. Marine Environmental Research 99, 16–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fletcher, S. and Potts, J. (2007) Ocean citizenship: an emergent geographical concept. Coastal Management 35, 511–524.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartig, T., Kaiser, F.G. and Bowler, P.A. (2001) Psychological restoration in nature as a positive motivation for ecological behaviour. Environment and Behavior 33, 590–607.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartig, T., Mitchell, R., De Vries, S. and Frumkin, H. (2014) Nature and health. Annual Review of Public Health 35, 207–228.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hartley, B.L., Thompson, R.C. and Pahl, S. (2015) Marine litter education boosts children's understanding and self-reported actions. Marine Pollution Bulletin 90, 209–217.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Herzog, T.R. (1985) A cognitive analysis of preferences for waterscapes. Journal of Environmental Psychology 5, 225–241.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herzog, T.R., Maguire, C.P. and Nebel, M.B. (2003) Assessing the restorative components of environments. Journal of Environmental Psychology 23, 159–170.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hidalgo-Ruiz, V. and Thiel, M. (2013) Distribution and abundance of small plastic debris on beaches in the SE Pacific (Chile): a study supported by a citizen science project. Marine Environmental Research 87, 12–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hipp, J.A. and Ogunseitan, O.A. (2011) Effect of environmental conditions on perceived psychological restorativeness of coastal parks. Journal of Environmental Psychology 31, 421–429.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holick, M. (2004) Vitamin D: importance in the prevention of cancers, type 1 diabetes, heart disease, and osteoporosis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 79, 362–371.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hubbard, H.V. and Kimball, T. (1967) An introduction to the study of landscape design. Boston, MA: Hubbard Educational Trust.Google Scholar
Humpel, N., Owen, N., Iverson, D., Leslie, E. and Bauman, A. (2004) Perceived environment attributes, residential location and walking for particular purposes. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 26, 119–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kaplan, R. and Kaplan, S. (1989) The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Kormos, C. and Gifford, R. (2014) The validity of self-report measures of proenvironmental behavior: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Environmental Psychology 40, 359–371. doi: 10.1016/j.jenvp.2014.09.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koss, R.S. and Kingsley, J.Y. (2010) Volunteer health and emotional wellbeing in marine protected areas. Ocean and Coastal Management 53, 447–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kyffin, R.G., Goldacre, M.J. and Gill, M. (2004) Mortality rates and self reported health: database analysis by English local authority area. British Medical Journal (Clinical Research Ed.) 329, 887–888.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lange, E. and Schaeffer, P.V. (2001) A comment on the market value of a room with a view. Landscape and Urban Planning 55, 113–120.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luttik, J. (2000) The value of trees, water and open space as reflected by house prices in the Netherlands. Landscape and Urban Planning 48, 161–167.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
MacKerron, G. and Mourato, S. (2013) Happiness is greater in natural environments. Global Environmental Change 23, 992–1000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, F.S. and Frantz, C.M. (2004) The connectedness to nature scale: a measure of individuals’ feeling in community with nature. Journal of Environmental Psychology 24, 503–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, R. and Popham, F. (2007) Greenspace, urbanity and health: relationships in England. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 61, 681–683.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, R. and Popham, F. (2008) Effect of exposure to natural environment on health inequalities: an observational population study. Lancet 372, 1655–1660.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Moore, M.N., Baker-Austin, C., Depledge, M.H., Fleming, L., Hess, P., Lees, D., Leaonard, P., Madsen, L., Owen, R., Pirlet, H., White, M.P., Vasconcelos, V., Boase, N., Osborne, N. and Viarengo, A. (2013) Linking oceans and human health: a strategic research priority for Europe. Marine board position paper 19. Ostend: Marine Board-ESF.Google Scholar
Noble, M., Wright, G., Dibben, C., Smith, G.A.N., McLennan, D., Anttila, C., Barnes, H., Mokhtar, C., Noble, S., Avenell, D., Gardner, J., Covizzi, I. and Lloyd, M. (2004) The English indices of deprivation 2004. London: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.Google Scholar
Pressman, S. D. and Cohen, S. (2005) Does positive affect influence health? Psychological Bulletin 131, 925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rayner, G. and Lang, T. (2013) Ecological public health: reshaping the conditions for good health. London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, E.A., Mitchell, R., Hartig, T., de Vries, S., Astell-Burt, T. and Frumkin, H. (2012) Green cities and health: a question of scale? Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 66, 160–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schipperijn, J., Ekholm, O., Stigsdotter, U.K., Toftager, M., Bentsen, P., Kamper-Jørgensen, F. and Randrup, T.B. (2010) Factors influencing the use of green space: results from a Danish national representative survey. Landscape and Urban Planning 95, 130–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steel, B.S., Lovrich, N., Lach, D. and Fomenko, V. (2005a) Correlates and consequences of public knowledge concerning ocean fisheries management. Coastal Management 33, 37–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steel, B.S., Smith, C., Opsommer, L., Curiel, S. and Warner-Steel, R. (2005b) Public ocean literacy in the United States. Ocean and Coastal Management 48, 97–114.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ulrich, R.S. (1983) Aesthetic and affective response to natural environments. In Altman, I. and Wohlwill, J.F. (eds.) Human behaviour and environment. Behaviour and the natural environment, Volume 6. New York, NY: Plenum Press, pp. 85–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Völker, S. and Kistemann, T. (2011) The impact of blue space on human health and well-being – salutogenic health effects of inland surface waters: a review. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 214, 449–460.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Völker, S. and Kistemann, T. (2013) “I'm always entirely happy when I'm here!” Urban blue enhancing human health and well-being in Cologne and Düsseldorf, Germany. Social Science and Medicine 78, 113–124.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wheeler, B., White, M.P., Fleming, L.E., Taylor, T., Harvey, A. and Depledge, M.H. (2014) Influences of the oceans on human health and wellbeing. In Bowen, R. (ed.) Seas, society and human well-being. Chichester: Wiley, pp. 4–22.Google Scholar
Wheeler, B., White, M.P., Stahl-Timmins, W. and Depledge, M.H. (2012) Does living by the coast improve health and wellbeing? Health and Place 18, 1198–1201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
White, M.P., Alcock, I., Wheeler, B.W. and Depledge, M.H. (2013a) Coastal proximity and health: a fixed effects analysis of longitudinal panel data. Health and Place 23, 97–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.P., Bell, S., Elliot, L., Jenkin, R. and Wheeler, B. (2016a). Blue exercise in the UK. In Barton, J., Bragg, R., Wood, C. and Pretty, J. (eds) Green exercise: linking nature, health and well-being. London: Routledge-Earthscan.Google Scholar
White, M.P., Cracknell, D., Corcoran, A., Jenkinson, G. and Depledge, M.H. (2014a) Do preferences for waterscapes persist in inclement weather conditions and extend to sub-aquatic scenes? Landscape Research 39, 339–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.P., Pahl, S., Ashbullby, K.J., Herbert, S. and Depledge, M.H. (2013b) Feelings of restoration from recent nature visits. Journal of Environmental Psychology 35, 40–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.P., Smith, A., Humphryes, K., Pahl, S., Snelling, D. and Depledge, M. (2010) Blue space: the importance of water for preference, affect and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes. Journal of Environmental Psychology 30, 482–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
White, M.P., Wheeler, B., Pahl, S. and Depledge, N.H. (2016b) Blue landscapes and public health. In van den Bosch, M. and Bird, W. (eds) Landscape and public health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
White, M.P., Wheeler, B.W., Herbert, S., Alcock, I. and Depledge, M.H. (2014b) Coastal proximity and physical activity. Is the coast an underappreciated public health resource? Preventive Medicine 69, 135–140.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witten, K., Hiscock, R., Pearce, J. and Blakely, T. (2008) Neighbourhood access to open spaces and the physical activity of residents: a national study. Preventive Medicine 47, 299–303.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wyles, K.J., Pahl, S. and Thompson, R.C.T. (2014) Perceived risks and benefits of recreational visits to the marine environment: integrating impacts on the environment and impacts on the visitor. Ocean and Coastal Management 88, 53–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wyles, K.J., Pahl, S. and Thompson, R.C.T. (in press) Factors that can undermine the psychological benefits of coastal environments: exploring the effect of tidal state, presence and type of litter. Environment and Behaviour.Google Scholar
Wyles, K.J., Pahl, S., White, M.P., Morris, S., Cracknell, D. (2013) Enhancing the “Marine Mindset”: the effects of an aquarium visit and information booklet on attitudes and intentions about fish sustainability and marine pollution. Visitor Studies 16, 95–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yerrel, P. (2008) National evaluation of the TCV's green gym. Unpublished report, School of Health and Social Care, Oxford Brookes University. Available at: http://www.tcv.org.uk/sites/default/files/green-gym-evaluation-full.pdfGoogle Scholar
Zube, E.H. (1974) Cross-disciplinary and intermode agreement on the description of evaluation of landscape resources. Environmental Behaviour 6, 69–89.Google Scholar