Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-26T07:43:21.811Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Favourable climatic niche in low elevations outside the flood zone characterises the distribution pattern of venomous snakes in Bangladesh

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  22 August 2022

Mohammad Abdul Wahed Chowdhury ,
Sara Varela ,
Sanjoy Roy ,
Md. Mizanur Rahman ,
Mohammed Noman ,
Ibrahim Khalil Al Haidar  and
Johannes Müller
Mohammad Abdul Wahed Chowdhury*
Affiliation:
Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chattogram4331, Bangladesh Venom Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram4203, Bangladesh
Sara Varela
Affiliation:
Departamento de Ecoloxía e Bioloxía Animal, grupo GEA, MAPAS lab, Universidade de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
Sanjoy Roy
Affiliation:
Bengal Institute for Architecture, Landscape and Settlements, Dhaka1212, Bangladesh
Md. Mizanur Rahman
Affiliation:
Venom Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram4203, Bangladesh
Mohammed Noman
Affiliation:
Venom Research Centre, Department of Medicine, Chittagong Medical College, Chattogram4203, Bangladesh
Ibrahim Khalil Al Haidar
Affiliation:
Department of Zoology, University of Chittagong, Chattogram4331, Bangladesh
Johannes Müller
Affiliation:
Museum für Naturkunde, Leibniz-Institut für Evolutions- und Biodiversitätsforschung, Berlin10115, Germany Institut für Biologie, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin10115, Germany
*
Author for correspondence: Mohammad Abdul Wahed Chowdhury, Email: piloctg@yahoo.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Snakes are sensitive to both environmental and climate gradients. To design conservation plans, a scientific understanding of snake habitats in light of environmental and climatic variables is an essential prerequisite. For venomous snakes, denoting favourable habitats should also be relevant for snakebite management. We have considered 18 spatial variables to portray the range of terrestrial venomous snake distribution in Bangladesh. Our results indicate that the distribution of 29 studied venomous snakes in this country is primarily driven by climatic and environmental variables. We found that especially low elevation and flood risk constrain the distribution of those terrestrial snakes, i.e. regular floods in central Bangladesh push venomous snakes towards the edges of the country. Moreover, none of these species occupies the whole of its anticipated climatically favourable area. Projections into the future indicated that 11 studied species, Amphiesma platyceps, Boiga siamensis, Chrysopelea ornata, Pseudoxenodon macrops, Rhabdophis himalayanus, Rhabdophis subminiatus, Bungarus lividus, Ophiophagus hannah, Daboia russelii, Ovophis monticola and Trimeresurus popeiorum will lose their entire climatically suitable area within the country. Therefore, we suggest establishing more protected areas in the hilly ecosystems in the eastern part and in the mangrove forests in the south-western corner of Bangladesh to mitigate future extinction risks, such as climate change, sea-level rise and increase in flood severity. Conserving village forests and croplands, which are subject to rapid change, will also need to be addressed equally, as these are inhabited by almost one-third of the studied species. The occurrence of the cobras and kraits in village forests and cropland dominant habitats demands more attention to minimise snakebite related mortality and morbidity.

Keywords

climate changeconservationenvironmental variablefloodnicheterrestrial habitattropical countryvenomous snake
Type
Research Article
Information
Journal of Tropical Ecology , Volume 38 , Issue 6 , November 2022 , pp. 437 - 450
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ahsan, MM, Aziz, N and Morshed, HM (2016) Assessment of management effectiveness of protected areas of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Forest Department, pp. 116.Google Scholar
Aziz, A and Paul, A (2015) Bangladesh Sundarbans: present status of the environment and Biota. Diversity 7, 242–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balouch, S, Rais, M, Hussain, I and Akram, A (2016) Squamate diversity in different croplands of district Chakwal, Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of King Saud University – Science 28, 255–260.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (2019) Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council. http://maps.barcapps.gov.bd/ (accessed 11 Dec 2020).Google Scholar
Bangladesh Forest Department (2019) Bangladesh Forest Department. http://www.bforest.gov.bd/site/page/1b2664a5-b0a6-445b-9d56-c4a85b8434e2/- (accessed 11 Dec 2020).Google Scholar
Bangladesh Water Development Board (2010) Flood Forecasting and Warning Centre. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Bangladesh Water Development Board.Google Scholar
Banglapedia (2012) Climatic zone: Banglapedia – national encyclopedia of Bangladesh. http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Climatic_Zone (accessed 11 Dec 2020).Google Scholar
Banglapedia (2021) Rivers of Bangladesh. https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/River (accessed 11 Dec 2020).Google Scholar
Barlow, A, Pook, CE, Harrison, RA and Wüster, W (2009) Coevolution of diet and prey-specific venom activity supports the role of selection in snake venom evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 276, 2443–2449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Beaumont, LJ, Hughes, L and Poulsen, M (2005) Predicting species distributions: use of climatic parameters in BIOCLIM and its impact on predictions of species’ current and future distributions. Ecological Modelling 186, 251–270.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bivand, R, Keitt, T, Rowlingson, B, Pebesma, E, Sumner, M, Hijmans, R, Rouault, E, Warmerdam, F, Ooms, J and Rundel, C (2019a) Bindings for the ‘Geospatial’ Data Abstraction Library Version. Vienna, Austria: Cran, pp. 65.Google Scholar
Bivand, R, Lewin-Koh, N, Pebesma, E, Archer, E, Baddeley, A, Bearman, N, Bibiko, H-J, Brey, S, Callahan, J, Carrillo, G, Dray, S, Forrest, D, Friendly, M, Giraudoux, P, Golicher, D, Rubio, VG, Hausmann, P, Hufthammer, KO, Jagger, T, Johnson, K, Luque, S, MacQueen, D, Niccolai, A, Pebesma, E, Lamigueiro, OP, Plunkett, E, Short, T, Snow, G, Stabler, B, Stokely, M and Turner, R (2019b) Maptools: Tools for Handling Spatial Objects. Vienna, Austria: Cran, pp. 91.Google Scholar
Breininger, DR, Mazerolle, MJ, Bolt, MR, Legare, ML, Drese, JH and Hines, JE (2012) Habitat fragmentation effects on annual survival of the federally protected eastern indigo snake. Animal Conservation 15, 361–368.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brun, P, Thuiller, W, Chauvier, Y, Pellissier, L, Wüest, RO, Wang, Z and Zimmermann, NE (2020) Model complexity affects species distribution projections under climate change. Journal of Biogeography 47, 130–142.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buchhorn, M, Smets, B, Bertels, L, Lesiv, M, Tsendbazar, N.-E. Herold, M and Fritz, S (2019) Copernicus global land service: land cover 100 m, epoch 2015, Globe (Version V2.0.2). https://lcviewer.vito.be/download.Google Scholar
Chang, D, Olenzek, AM and Duda, TF (2015) Effects of geographical heterogeneity in species interactions on the evolution of venom genes. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282, 20141984.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chevin, L, Lande, R and Mace, GM (2010) Adaptation, plasticity, and extinction in a changing environment: towards a predictive theory. PLoS Biology 8, e1000357.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Choudhury, JK (2003) National forest policy review. In Enters, T, Qiang, M and Leslie, RN (eds), An overview of Forest Policies in Asia. EC-FAO Partnership Programme (2000–2002). Bangkok (Thailand): European Commission and Food and Agriculture Organization,   FAO, pp. 14–48.Google Scholar
Colwell, RK, Brehm, G, Cardelús, CL, Gilman, AC, Longino, JT, Cardelus, CL, Gilman, AC and Longino, JT (2008) Global warming, elevational range shifts, and lowland biotic attrition in the wet tropics. Science 322, 258–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
De Marco, P and Nóbrega, CC (2018) Evaluating collinearity effects on species distribution models: an approach based on virtual species simulation. PLOS ONE 13, e0202403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deo, RC, Adamowski, JF, Begum, K, Salcedo-Sanz, S, Kim, D-W, Dayal, KS and Byun, H-R (2019) Quantifying flood events in Bangladesh with a daily-step flood monitoring index based on the concept of daily effective precipitation. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 137, 1201–1215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dewan, AM, Nishigaki, M and Komatsu, M (2003) Floods in Bangladesh: a comparative hydrological investigation on two catastrophic events. Journal of the Faculty of Environmental Science and Technology, Okayama University 8, 53–62.Google Scholar
Dias-Terceiro, RG, Kaefer, IL, de Fraga, R, de Araújo, MC, Simões, PI and Lima, AP (2015) A matter of scale: historical and environmental factors structure Anuran assemblages from the Upper Madeira River, Amazonia. Biotropica 47, 259–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
dos Santos, MB, de Oliveira, MCLM, Gonçalves, TP, de Almeida, FM, Loebmann, D and Tozetti, AM (2013) Does human influence on coastal grasslands habitats affect predation pressure on snakes? Biota Neotropica 13, 366–370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fu, C, Wang, J, Pu, Z, Zhang, S, Chen, H, Zhao, B, Chen, J and Wu, J (2007) Elevational gradients of diversity for lizards and snakes in the Hengduan Mountains, China. Biodiversity and Conservation 16, 707–726.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ghose, A and Faiz, A (2015) Clinical toxinology in Asia Pacific and Africa. In Gopalakrishnakone, P, Faiz, A, Fernando, R, Gnanathasan, CA, Habib, AG and Yang, CC (eds), Clinical Toxinology in Asia Pacific and Africa. Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 233–249.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbons, JW, Scott, DE, Ryan, TJ, Buhlmann, KA, Tuberville, TD, Metts, BS, Greene, JL, Mills, T, Leiden, Y, Poppy, S and Winne, CT (2000) The global decline of Reptiles, Déja Vu Amphibians. BioScience 50, 653–666.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gibbs, HL, Sovic, M, Amazonas, D, Chalkidis, H, Salazar-Valenzuela, D and Moura-Da-Silva, AM (2018) Recent lineage diversification in a venomous snake through dispersal across the Amazon River. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 123, 651–665.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gutiérrez, JM (2014) Reducing the impact of snakebite envenoming in Latin America and the Caribbean: achievements and challenges ahead. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 108, 530–537.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, RA, Hargreaves, A, Wagstaff, SC, Faragher, B and Lalloo, DG (2009) Snake envenoming: a disease of poverty. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3, e569.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hasan, MK, Khan, MMH and Feeroz, M. (2014) Amphibians and Reptiles of Bangladesh-A Field Guide. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Arannayk Foundation, pp. 191.Google Scholar
Hassan, MM, Smith, AC, Walker, K, Rahman, MK and Southworth, J (2018) Rohingya refugee crisis and forest cover change in Teknaf, Bangladesh. Remote Sensing 10, 1–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hijmans, RJ, Cameron, SE, Parra, JL, Jones, PG and Jarvis, A (2005) Very high resolution interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas. International Journal of Climatology 25, 1965–1978.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hijmans, RJ, Van Etten, J, Sumner, M, Cheng, J, Bevan, A, Bivand, R, Busetto, L, Canty, M, Forrest, D, Ghosh, A, Golicher, D, Gray, J, Greenberg, JA, Hiemstra, P, Karney, C, Mattiuzzi, M, Mosher, S, Nowosad, J, Pebesma, E, Lamigueiro, OP, Racine, EB, Rowlingson, B, Shortridge, A and Wueest, R (2019) Geographic Data Analysis and Modeling. Vienna, Austria: Cran, pp. 249.Google Scholar
Hijmans, RJ, Phillips, S, Leathwick, J and Elith, J (2017) Species Distribution Modeling. Cran: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Holt, RD (1990) The microevolutionary consequences of climate change. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 5, 311–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Iftekhar, MS (2006) Forestry in Bangladesh: an overview. Journal of Forestry 104, 148–153.Google Scholar
IUCN Bangladesh (2015) Red List of Bangladesh Volume 4: Reptiles and Amphibians. Dhaka, Bangladesh: IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, Bangladesh Country Office, pp. 336.Google Scholar
IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee (2019) Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN, pp. 44.Google Scholar
John, K, Zaitsev, AS and Wolters, V (2021) Soil fauna groups respond differentially to changes in crop rotation cycles in rice production systems. Pedobiologia 84, 150703.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kearney, M, Shine, R and Porter, WP (2009) The potential for behavioral thermoregulation to buffer ‘cold-blooded’ animals against climate warming. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106, 3835–3840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khalequzzaman, M (1994) Recent floods in Bangladesh: possible causes and solutions. Natural Hazards 9, 65–80.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khan, MAR (2015) Wildlife of Bangladesh Checklist and Guide. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Md. Jahangir Alam.Google Scholar
Khan, MMH (2018) Photographic Guide to the Wildlife of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: Arannayk Foundation, pp. 488.Google Scholar
La Sorte, FA and Jetz, W (2012) Tracking of climatic niche boundaries under recent climate change. Journal of Animal Ecology 81, 914–925.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laxme, RRS, Attarde, S, Khochare, S, Suranse, V, Martin, G, Casewell, NR, Whitaker, R, Sunagar, K, Senji Laxme, RR, Attarde, S, Khochare, S, Suranse, V, Martin, G, Casewell, NR, Whitaker, R and Sunagar, K (2021) Biogeographical venom variation in the Indian spectacled cobra (Naja naja) underscores the pressing need for pan-India efficacious snakebite therapy. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15, e0009150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lourenço-de-Moraes, R, Lansac-Toha, FM, Schwind, LTF, Arrieira, RL, Rosa, RR, Terribile, LC, Lemes, P, Fernando Rangel, T, Diniz-Filho, JAF, Bastos, RP and Bailly, D (2019) Climate change will decrease the range size of snake species under negligible protection in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest hotspot. Scientific Reports 9, 1–14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Maclean, IMD and Wilson, RJ (2011) Recent ecological responses to climate change support predictions of high extinction risk. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 108, 12337–12342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Madsen, T and Shine, R (1996) Seasonal migration of predators and prey – a study of pythons and rats in tropical Australia. Ecology 77, 149–156.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mcdonald, T (2016) Balanced Acceptance Sampling (BAS) for Points. https://cran.r-project.org/webapackages/SDraw/vignettes/BASPoints.pdf.Google Scholar
Mia, MY, Ali, MR and Roy, S (2016) Comparison of climatic variables among different climatic sub-regions of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Journal of Scientific Research 29, 63–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondal, RN, Chowdhury, FR, Rani, M, Mohammad, NUR, Islam, M, Haque, MA and Faiz, MA (2012) Pre-hospital and hospital management practices and circumstances behind venomous snakebite in Northwestern part of Bangladesh. Asia Pacific Journal of Medical Toxicology 1, 18–21.Google Scholar
Moraes, LJCL, Pavan, D, Barros, MC and Ribas, CC (2016) The combined influence of riverine barriers and flooding gradients on biogeographical patterns for amphibians and squamates in south-eastern Amazonia. Journal of Biogeography 43, 2113–2124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morelli, TL, Daly, C, Dobrowski, SZ, Dulen, DM, Ebersole, JL, Jackson, ST, Lundquist, JD and Millar, CI (2016) Managing climate change refugia for climate adaptation. PLoS ONE 11, 1–17.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mukul, SA, Biswas, SR and Manzoor Rashid, AZM (2018) Biodiversity in Bangladesh. In Pullaiah, T (ed), Global Biodiversity. New York, USA: Apple Academic Press, pp. 93–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Needleman, RK, Neylan, IP and Erickson, T (2018) Potential environmental and ecological effects of global climate change on venomous terrestrial species in the wilderness. Wilderness and Environmental Medicine 29, 226–238.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nishat, A, Huq, SMI, Barua, SP, Reza, AHMA and Khan, ASM (Eds) (2002) Bio-Ecological Zones of Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangladesh: IUCN Bangladesh Country Office, pp. 143.Google Scholar
Ochoa, C, Bolon, I, Durso, AM, Ruiz de Castañeda, R, Alcoba, G, Babo Martins, S, Chappuis, F and Ray, N (2020) Assessing the increase of snakebite incidence in relationship to flooding events. Journal of Environmental and Public Health 2020, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payo, A, Mukhopadhyay, A, Hazra, S, Ghosh, T, Ghosh, S, Brown, S, Nicholls, RJ, Bricheno, L, Wolf, J, Kay, S, Lázár, AN and Haque, A (2016) Projected changes in area of the Sundarban mangrove forest in Bangladesh due to SLR by 2100. Climatic Change 139, 279–291.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pebesma, E, Bivand, R, Racine, E, Sumner, M, Cook, I, Keitt, T, Lovelace, R, Wickham, H, Ooms, J, Müller, K, Pedersen, TL and Baston, D (2020) Simple Features for R, Vienna, Austria: Cran, pp. 125.Google Scholar
Pebesma, E, Bivand, R, Rowlingson, B, Gomez-Rubio, V, Hijmans, R, Sumner, M, MacQueen, D, Lemon, J, O’Brien, J and O’Rourke, J (2019) Classes and Methods for Spatial Data, Vienna, Austria: Cran, pp. 121.Google Scholar
Phillimore, AB, Had, JD, Jones, OR and Smithers, RJ (2010) Differences in spawning date between populations of common frog reveal local adaptation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107, 8292–8297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piatti, L, Rosauer, DF, Nogueira, CDC, Strussmann, C, Lúcia, V and Martins, M (2019) Snake diversity in floodplains of central South America: is flood pulse the principal driver ? Acta Oecologica 97, 34–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pla, D, Sanz, L, Quesada-Bernat, S, Villalta, M, Baal, J, Chowdhury, MAW, León, G, Gutiérrez, JMJM, Kuch, U and Calvete, JJJ (2019) Phylovenomics of Daboia russelii across the Indian subcontinent. Bioactivities and comparative in vivo neutralization and in vitro third-generation antivenomics of antivenoms against venoms from India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Journal of Proteomics 207, 103443.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Planning Commission Bangladesh (2018) Bangladesh delta plan 2100. http://www.plancomm.gov.bd/site/files/0adcee77-2db8-41bf-b36b-657b5ee1efb9/Bangladesh-Delta-Plan-2100 (accessed 13 Aug 2020).Google Scholar
Putman, BJ and Clark, RW (2017) Behavioral thermal tolerances of free-ranging rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus) during the summer foraging season. Journal of Thermal Biology 65, 8–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Raha, A, Das, S, Banerjee, K and Mitra, A (2012) Climate change impacts on Indian Sunderbans: a time series analysis (1924-2008). Biodiversity and Conservation 21, 1289–1307.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rahman, R, Faiz, MA, Selim, S, Rahman, B, Basher, A, Jones, A, d’Este, C, Hossain, M, Islam, Z, Ahmed, H and Milton, AH (2010) Annual incidence of snake bite in rural Bangladesh. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 4, 1–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rahman, SC, Rashid, SMA, Das, K, Jenkins, C and Luiselli, L (2013a) Monsoon does matter: annual activity patterns in a snake assemblage from Bangladesh. Herpetological Journal 23, 203–208.Google Scholar
Rahman, SC, Rashid, SMA, Das, K and Luiselli, L (2013b) Composition and structure of a snake assemblage in an altered tropical forest-plantation mosaic in Bangladesh. Amphibia Reptilia 34, 41–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rangel, TF and Loyola, RD (2012) Labeling ecological niche models. Natureza a Conservacao, Brazilian Journal of Nature Conservation 10, 119–126.Google Scholar
Rashid, H (1991) Geography of Bangladesh Second. Dhaka, Bangladesh: University Press.Google Scholar
Reading, CJ, Luiselli, LM, Akani, GC, Bonnet, X, Amori, G, Ballouard, JM, Filippi, E, Naulleau, G, Pearson, D and Rugiero, L (2010) Are snake populations in widespread decline? Biology Letters 6, 777–780.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Reed, RN (2003) Interspecific patterns of species richness, geographic range size, and body size among New World venomous snakes. Ecography 26, 107–117.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rödder, D, Lötters, S, Öz, M, Bogaerts, S, Eleftherakos, K and Veith, M (2011) A novel method to calculate climatic niche similarity among species with restricted ranges—the case of terrestrial Lycian salamanders. Organisms Diversity & Evolution 11, 409–423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sahlean, TC, Gherghel, I, Papeş, M, Strugariu, A and Zamfirescu, ŞR (2014) Refining climate change projections for organisms with low dispersal abilities: a case study of the Caspian Whip snake. PLoS ONE 9, e91994.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sarker, SK, Reeve, R, Paul, NK and Matthiopoulos, J (2019) Modelling spatial biodiversity in the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem—the Bangladesh Sundarbans: a baseline for conservation. Diversity and Distributions 25, 729–742.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Segura, C, Feriche, M, Pleguezuelos, JM and Santos, X (2007) Specialist and generalist species in habitat use: implications for conservation assessment in snakes. Journal of Natural History 41, 2765–2774.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sexton, OJ, Drda, WJ, Sexton, KG and Bramble, JE (2007) The effects of flooding upon the snake fauna of an isolated refuge. Natural Areas Journal 27, 133–144.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shahid, S (2011) Trends in extreme rainfall events of Bangladesh. Theoretical and Applied Climatology 104, 489–499.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Strickland, JL, Smith, CF, Mason, AJ, Schield, DR, Borja, M, Castañeda-Gaytán, G, Spencer, CL, Smith, LL, Trápaga, A, Bouzid, NM, Campillo-García, G, Flores-Villela, OA, Antonio-Rangel, D, Mackessy, SP, Castoe, TA, Rokyta, DR and Parkinson, CL (2018) Evidence for divergent patterns of local selection driving venom variation in Mojave Rattlesnakes (Crotalus scutulatus). Scientific Reports 8, 1–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tauzer, E, Borbor-Cordova, MJ, Mendoza, J, De La Cuadra, T, Cunalata, J and Stewart-Ibarra, AM (2019) A participatory community case study of periurban coastal flood vulnerability in southern Ecuador. PLoS ONE 14, e0224171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
United States Geological Survey (2019) United States Geological Survey. https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/ (accessed 12 Aug 2020).Google Scholar
Vellend, M (2010) Conceptual synthesis in community ecology. Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling 85, 183–206.Google ScholarPubMed
Visser, ME (2008) Keeping up with a warming world; assessing the rate of adaptation to climate change. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275, 649–659.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Walther, G-R, Post, E, Convey, P, Menzel, A, Parmesan, C, Beebee, TJC, Fromentin, J-M, Hoegh-Guldberg, O and Bairlein, F (2002) Ecological responses to recent climate change. Nature 416, 389–395.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
World Meteorological Organization (2003) WMO Statement on the Status of the Global Climate in 2003. Geneva, Switzerland: World Meteorological Organization, pp. 12.Google Scholar
Wüster, W, Otsuka, S, Malhotra, A and Thorpe, R (1992) Population systematics of Russell’s viper: a multivariate study. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 47, 97–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yañez-Arenas, C, Peterson, AT, Mokondoko, P, Rojas-Soto, O and Martínez-Meyer, E (2014) The use of ecological niche modeling to infer potential risk areas of snakebite in the Mexican State of Veracruz. PLoS ONE 9, e100957.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: PDF

Chowdhury et al. supplementary material

Figure S1

Download Chowdhury et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 888.3 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Chowdhury et al. supplementary material

Table S1

Download Chowdhury et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 390.7 KB
Supplementary material: PDF

Chowdhury et al. supplementary material

Figure S2

Download Chowdhury et al. supplementary material(PDF)
PDF 223.9 KB