Occurrence data for Julbernardia globiflora and J. paniculata at 617 sites in the miombo woodland region of central, eastern and southern Africa and forest inventory data for 512 woodland plots in Zambia were used to determine species distribution and dominance. Distribution of the two Julbernardia species overlaps in the central region of the miombo woodland range while the eastern and western range regions are exclusively for only one of the two species. In the region of co-occurrence, there is a clear spatial separation in the dominance of the two species. In old-growth woodland a significant proportion of the variation in the dominance of J. globiflora was explained by the dominance of J. paniculata while mean annual maximum temperature and tree species richness negatively affect the dominance of J. paniculata. Old-growth woodland clearing changes the local climatic conditions and alters the way Julbernardia species in re-growth stands respond to potential evapo-transpiration (PET). Climate change, especially global warming, may further reinforce the impacts of PET to differentially favour J. globiflora. Because of this altered response of Julbernardia species in re-growth miombo, preserving old-growth miombo and preventing present human disturbances in designated areas, such as forest reserves and national parks, may be a useful climate adaptation strategy for these species.

Habitat preferences and response to habitat conversion remain under-studied for many groups in the tropics, limiting our understanding of how environmental and anthropogenic factors may interact to shape patterns of diversity. To help fill this knowledge gap, we surveyed nocturnal birds such as owls, nightjars and potoos through auditory transect surveys in 22 forest fragments (2.7 to 33.6 ha) in north-west Ecuador. We assessed the relative effect of habitat characteristics (e.g. canopy height and openness, and density of large trees) and fragment attributes (e.g. area, altitude and proportion of surrounding forest cover) on species richness and community composition. Based on our previous work, we predicted that nocturnal bird richness would be highest in relatively larger fragments with more surrounding forest cover. We recorded 11 total species with an average ± SD of 3.4 ± 1.4 (range = 2–7) species per fragment, with higher richness in fragments that were larger, at lower altitudes, and characterized by more open canopies. Nocturnal bird community similarity was not significantly correlated with any measured environmental variable. These results indicate that both landscape (e.g. altitude) and fragment-specific (e.g. size, forest structure) attributes are likely to interact to shape patterns of diversity among this poorly known but ecologically important guild in fragmented tropical landscapes.

Tropical forests are three-dimensional spaces with species and resources heterogeneously distributed. The vertical stratification of tropical forest biotas has been observed for several organisms and regions, but, surprisingly, the vertical structuring of large areas of important tropical forests, such as Brazil's Atlantic Forest, remains poorly studied. Here, we addressed the use of different Atlantic Forest strata by bats, comparing ensemble composition and relative abundance between the understorey and the canopy. A total of 618 bats belonging to 31 species and four families were recorded, including 11 species of frugivores and seven species of gleaning insectivores, the two trophic guilds predominantly represented in our sampling. Fifteen species were captured exclusively in the canopy, and six exclusively in the understorey, and many of those species were represented by a low number of captures (<5). The bat species composition, richness and relative abundance between canopy and understorey strata varied. Chiroderma villosum was exclusively captured in the canopy, Artibeus lituratus was netted predominantly in the canopy and Carollia perspicillata and Desmodus rotundus were mostly captured in the understorey. Although processes such as resource partitioning between species and ecomorphological constraints may explain the differential use of forest strata, this remains little understood because of the scarcity of data for the Atlantic forest canopies.

Changes in density and basal area of lianas ≥2 cm diameter were monitored in two 1-ha permanent plots in a subtropical montane mature forest of north-western Argentina. Liana stems were identified and measured at 130 cm from the main rooting point in two censuses conducted in 2003 and 2015. Between censuses, the density of liana stems decreased 13.3%, while basal area increased 11.5%. Density and basal area decreased mainly among lianas of 2–3 cm diameter, but increased in lianas ≥4 cm diameter. Quechualia fulta (Asteraceae), Serjania meridionalis (Sapindaceae) and Chamissoa altissima (Amaranthaceae) suffered large reductions in stem density and basal area. Dissimilar responses of density and basal area of lianas might be a consequence of the suppression of anthropogenic disturbances (e.g. livestock browsing) and the decrease of treefall gap frequency in the studied forest in recent decades. Light-demanding liana species decreased and shade-tolerant species increased possibly in response to the decline in the light availability associated with forest recovery from past disturbance. Lianas increased in basal area to a lesser extent compared with reports from several tropical and subtropical forests where lianas are increasing dramatically.

The ability of plants to colonize new habitats is influenced by their dependence on effective pollinators. This can be very important for plants that require specialized pollinators, especially when they disperse to islands that have low pollinator diversity. One form of specialization involves plants that require buzz-pollination, where bees must vibrate poricidal anthers at frequencies that allow pollen to be released. Pollen larceny is a phenomenon where insects ‘steal’ pollen from flowers which usually results in reduced pollination, but in some cases there can be a small contribution to pollination. Here we report pollen larceny in an endemic Fijian halictine bee Homalictus fijiensis that steals pollen by chewing anthers of the invasive weed Solanum torvum, which is a pollen-only plant requiring buzz pollination. In over nine hours of observations at six sites where H. fijiensis visited S. torvum, it never attempted to locate nectaries, it never buzzed anthers, and instead chewed anther tips, indicating an adaptation to exploit nectarless flowers with poricidal anthers without buzz-pollination. Analyses of 30 pollen loads from H. fijiensis collected from S. torvum flowers indicate 27 of these contained S. torvum pollen, ranging from 1% to 99% of total pollen, indicating it is a pollen vector for this plant. Our findings support arguments that super-generalist pollinators in island ecosystems can promote the spread of invasive plants, but go further by indicating that super-generalist strategies can extend to plants with highly specialized pollinator requirements.

Pollen and seed dispersal are key ecological processes, directly impacting the spatial distribution, abundance and genetic structure of plant populations; yet, pollen- and seed-dispersal distances are poorly known. We used molecular markers to identify the parental origin (n = 152 adult trees) of 177 Spondias radlkoferi (Anacardiaceae) seeds deposited by the spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) in latrines located beneath 17 sleeping-trees in two continuous forest sites (CF) and two forest fragments (FF) in the Lacandona rain forest, Mexico. We estimated mean parent-offspring (PO) distances per latrine and, for those seeds (54% of seeds) with more than one candidate parent (i.e. the potential maternal and parental parents), we also estimated parent-parent (PP) distances per latrine, and tested if PO and PP distances differed between forest types. Global PO and PP distances per latrine averaged 682 m (range = 83–1741 m) and 610 m (range = 74–2339 m), respectively, and did not differ significantly between CF and FF. This suggests that pollen dispersal is extensive in both forest types and that long seed dispersal distances (>100 m) are common, thus supporting the hypothesis that the spider monkey is an effective seed disperser of S. radlkoferi in continuous and fragmented forests.

Drivers of forest structure in central African rain forests are largely unknown. Using forest inventory data (3024 0.4-ha plots) in a forest concession of 154 456 ha in north-eastern Gabon covering an altitudinal gradient (from 485 to 1009 m asl), relationships between above-ground plot biomass and environmental variables (soil type, altitude, slope, aspect) and floristic composition (score given by an ordination method) were tested. After controlling for confounding variables, biomass was significantly related to altitude (with a modal response peaking at 346 Mg ha–1 on western slopes at an altitude of 707 m asl) and to aspect (additional 18.3 Mg ha–1 on eastern slopes) but not to floristic composition. Biomass and basal area responded differentially to the environment. Mean wood density was significantly related to soil, altitude and floristic composition, with a predicted minimum of 0.60 g cm–3 at an altitude of 1009 m asl in stands characterized by Scorodophloeus zenkeri and a maximum of 0.69 g cm–3 at an altitude of 458 m asl in monodominant Gilbertiodendron dewevrei stands. Variation in forest structure in the concession was primarily driven by altitude while floristic composition played a role in differentiating the variation in biomass and basal area.

Polymorphism is common in nature, but few Heliconius species are polymorphic for wing colour patterns. Eastern Brazil H. erato phyllis populations are polymorphic for hindwing elements (red raylets) and studies suggest that trait distribution varies seasonally. We carried a 3-y sampling to evaluate the hypothesis that season, wing length and pollen foraging were associated with morph diversity. Individual phenotypes were scored with regards to number of red elements in the dry and in the wet seasons. Co-mimic H. melpomene nanna was also analysed. We scored 432 H. erato and 513 H. melpomene. Our results confirm polymorphism in H. erato, with individuals showing from one to eight elements, with a mode between five and six. We found that H. melpomene is polymorphic for red dots, varying from two to five (mode = 2). Red basal dots were mostly invariant in H. erato. Even though we found a seasonal change in pollen loads, we found no association between individual phenotypes and season, pollen load scores, or wing length. We reject the hypothesis of ecological correlates of morph frequency, and suggest that trait colour variation in the two species is linked to and constrained by effects on mate recognition.

Seasonal fluctuations in bird abundance are expected in semi-arid environments, but estimates may be biased if detectability is not considered. In a tropical dry forest in north-eastern Brazil, we evaluated whether bird abundance is highly seasonal, and associated with time-specific variability in detectability. We mark-recaptured birds with mist nets over three field visits (3487 records from 75 species), and used closed-capture models to estimate detectability and abundance in birds divided into three groups (all, residents, insectivores). In the two dry periods, the best models resulted in capture estimates at least three times larger than recapture, and both estimates were twice that of when rains occurred on the day preceding sampling. Abundance varied between dry and wet periods from 4.0 (from 115 ± 34 to 479 ± 144) to 13 times (183 ± 8 to 2463 ± 351). Estimates were 1.5–3.2 times greater in the dry period when behavioural responses of birds were excluded from capture-recapture models. Meanwhile, in the wet period the relative abundance was between 33–76% smaller than best-fit models estimated. This study found variation in avian abundance greater than that observed in other Neotropical dry forests, and indicates that biases may be common when not including detectability.

A comprehensive assessment of the effect of disturbances on tropical and subtropical forests is needed to better understand their impacts on forest structure and diversity. Although taxonomic and functional diversity measures have been successfully adopted in this context, phylogenetic diversity metrics are still poorly explored. We compared the phylogenetic structure of the seed rain and regenerating seedling community in patches of an old-growth Atlantic Forest remnant dominated or not by a ruderal bamboo species, Guadua tagoara. We sampled those patches before and after illegal harvesting of the palm Euterpe edulis thus assessing if the harvesting led to changes in the phylogenetic structure of the seed rain and the regenerating community in both patches. Bamboo-dominated patches showed a significantly higher presence of species in the seed rain that were more distantly related to each other in the phylogeny than expected by chance compared with patches without bamboos, but this difference disappeared after palm-heart harvesting. Contrary to what we expected, we did not find significant changes in the phylogenetic structure of seedlings before or after palm-heart harvesting. The phylogenetic structure at the tips of the phylogeny was random overall. The maintenance of a higher presence of far relatives in the phylogeny of the seedling community suggests, assuming trait conservatism, that despite bamboo dominance and palm-heart harvesting, functional diversity is being preserved at least in the early regenerating stages and in the time frame of the study. However, higher presence of pioneer taxa after palm-heart harvest indicates that this disturbance may lead old-growth areas to earlier successional stages.

The relative importance of different bottom-up-mediated effects in shaping insect communities in tropical secondary forests are poorly understood. Here, we explore the roles of vegetation structure, forest age, local topography (valley vs. hill top) and soil variables in predicting fruit-feeding butterfly and tree community composition, and tree community composition in predicting fruit-feeding butterfly community composition, in different-aged naturally regenerating and primary forests of Kibale National Park, Uganda. We also examine which variables are best predictors of fruit-feeding butterfly species richness or diversity. Butterflies (88 species) were sampled with a banana-baited trap and trees (98 taxa) with a 40 × 20-m sampling plot at 80 sampling sites. The environmental variables explained 31% of the variation in the tree community composition, the best predictors being local topography, forest age and cover of Acanthus pubescens (a shrub possibly arresting succession). The fruit-feeding butterfly community composition was better predicted by tree community composition (explaining 10% of the variation) rather than vegetation structure, local topography or soil factors. Environmental variables and tree species richness (or diversity) were poor predictors of butterfly species richness (or diversity). Our results emphasize the importance of tree community to recovery of herbivorous insect communities in tropical secondary forests.

Many plants within the neotropical understorey produce both seeds and clonal offspring. Plant attributes (i.e. size) and variability in light can influence seed dispersal but it is not known if these factors influence the dispersal of clonal offspring. Our goal was to determine if canopy openness and plant size influence clonal-offspring dispersal of the herb Goeppertia marantifolia, which produces clonal bulbils on above-ground shoots. We monitored plants in permanent plots with varying levels of canopy openness in Corcovado National Park, Costa Rica. We recorded canopy openness, leaf area and the distance clonal offspring travelled from their parent plant (N = 283). Our path analysis model demonstrated that canopy openness had a strong positive effect on dispersal distance, while the association between clonal-offspring dispersal distance and parent plant leaf area was only weakly positive. On average, plants experiencing high canopy openness dispersed their clonal offspring further than plants under low canopy openness (124 cm vs. 79 cm, respectively). Contrary to studies on species that utilize rhizomes and stolons for clonal reproduction, we found that in this bulbil-producing species light availability is positively associated with clonal dispersal distance. Therefore, the influence of resource availability on spatial population dynamics of clonal species may be influenced by the species’ growth-form.

The present study aims to investigate the effects of vegetation structure (plant abundance and height) and soil characteristics (soil organic matter and macronutrients) on insect gall richness, and determine the extent to which these effects are mediated by the indirect effects of plant species richness. The study was performed in forty-nine 100-m2 savanna plots in Parque Nacional das Emas (Brazil) and sampled a total of 985 individual plants of 71 plant species and 97 insect gall morphotypes. Cecidomyiidae (Diptera) induced the most insect galls (38.1%), and the plant family Myrtaceae had the greatest richness of insect gall morphotypes (16). Path analysis of plant abundance, plant height, soil macronutrients, soil organic matter and plant species richness explained 73% of insect gall richness. The results show that soil macronutrient quantity has a direct positive effect on insect gall richness, whereas plant abundance and plant height had only indirect positive effects on insect gall richness via the increase in plant species richness. These findings showed that both plant-related and environment-related factors are important to induce insect gall richness in Neotropical savannas, and that plant species richness should be taken into account to determine the richness of insect galls.

Litterfall is one of the most important pathways through which nutrients are recycled in the terrestrial biosphere. In tropical soils, which are generally low in essential nutrients such as phosphorus and cations, the flux of nutrients through litterfall is particularly important to sustaining CO2-uptake capacity; however, questions remain over the role of altitude in altering litter nutrient cycling rates among tropical forest ecosystems. Here we examine litterfall, carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) fluxes through litterfall over an altitudinal gradient in the coastal Atlantic Forest located on the northern coast of the State of São Paulo, Brazil. Litterfall was collected twice a month for 1 y (April 2007–March 2008) using 30 litter traps placed in four different forest types arrayed by altitude – coastal forest (sea level), lowland forest (50–200 m asl), submontane forest (300–500 m asl) and montane forest (1000 m asl). Litterfall mass-fluxes decreased with increasing altitude, from ~9 Mg ha−1 in lowland forests to 7 Mg ha−1 in higher-altitude ecosystems. Contribution of reproductive organs to litterfall was significantly greater in lower than in higher altitudes. Litterfall N and P fluxes were higher in the lowland forest vs. other forest types, pointing to strong altitudinal controls over nutrient cycling. Furthermore, nitrogen-use efficiency (NUE) was lower and litter δ15N was higher in the lowland site providing additional evidence for lack of N constraints to productivity in lowland of the south-eastern Atlantic Forest.

Prey seek to minimize predation risk by moving across the landscape in search of safer areas. Yet, these movements are associated with risks that depend on the intrinsic attributes of the species involved. We evaluated the effect of presence of an apex predator (Puma concolor) on the composition of a community of medium and large-bodied terrestrial mammal species in 23 forest fragments in the State of São Paulo, Brazil, based on overnight footprint surveys over 2 y. We tested if (1) presence of the puma decreases species richness (prey and mesopredator), (2) landscape features interact with puma effects, altering the composition and richness of prey, (3) darker nights strengthen the predation risk effects of puma and (4) this effect can vary among prey species. The puma reduced the richness of prey species by ~45% and presence of mesopredator by 11%. Larger forest fragments and darker nights strengthened the effects of puma on the mammal community. Most prey species showed negative associations with the apex predator, while others were unaffected or showed a positive association. These results add new knowledge about the effects of predation risk and of the landscape characteristics on the composition of the mammal community and the behaviour of different species. Furthermore, our results indicate that medium and large mammals live in a landscape of fear in Neotropical forest remnants.

In the south-eastern Amazon, positive feedbacks between land use and severe weather events are increasing the frequency and intensity of fires, threatening local biodiversity. We sampled fruit-feeding butterflies in experimental plots in a south-eastern Amazon forest: one control plot, one plot burned every 3 y, one plot burned yearly. We also measured environmental parameters (canopy cover, temperature, humidity). Our results show no significant differences in overall species richness between plots (34, 37 and 33 species respectively), although richness was lower in burned plots during the dry season. We found significant differences in community composition and structure between control and burned plots, but not between burned treatments. In the control plot, forest-specialist species represented 64% of total abundance, decreasing to 50% in burned every 3 y and 54% in yearly burned plots. Savanna specialist species were absent in the control plot, but represented respectively 8% and 3% of total abundance in burned plots. The best predictor of the change in spatial community patterns and abundance of forest specialists was canopy cover. Although we found high resilience to forest burning in many species, our study suggests that fire disturbance can still be a threat to forest specialists due to changes in microclimate.

To date, the spatial distribution pattern and density of Brazil nut trees in logged forest stands is unclear across the Amazon basin. We asked the following questions: (1) What are the densities and spatial distributions of Brazil nut juveniles (10 ≤ dbh < 40 cm) and adults (≥ 40 cm dbh) in three selectively logged Brazil nut concessions (1413 ha sampled) in Madre de Dios, Peru; (2) What is the spatial relationship between adults and juveniles (10 ≤ dbh < 30 cm); and (3) What is the spatial relationship between juveniles (10 ≤ dbh <30 cm) and cut stumps (≥ 10 y)? Spatial analyses were conducted using statistics derived from Ripley's K function. Juveniles were aggregated in all three concessions. Results for adult populations rejected the null hypothesis of a random distribution among trees ≥ 40 cm dbh. We did not find an attraction between juveniles and cut-stump locations, nor between adults and juveniles. The strong peaks of aggregation for juveniles and adult Brazil nuts in this study occurred at long distances (300–900 m), suggesting multiple tree canopy gaps as drivers of spatial distribution patterns, either via natural or anthropogenic sources. Our data contribute to a more thorough understanding of Brazil nut population structure in disturbed forests in south-western Amazonia.

The role of sacred forest patches in maintaining biodiversity and offering ecosystem services is well established, though the functional aspects are understated. This study aims to understand the functional diversity of tree reproductive traits of sacred forest patches in an altered landscape. Twenty-five sacred groves in Palakkad region, Kerala, India, were chosen to assess the distribution of five reproductive traits – pollination mechanism, fruit size, seed number, seed size and dispersal mechanism – among the tree populations. The data matrix was analysed for overall trait-state distribution, functional diversity assessment and its relation to environmental parameters and disturbance in the area. A total of 87 woody species was documented with a fairly homogenized distribution of fruit and seed characters, with ≥50% of the recorded trait states in each grove in comparison to control plot. Pollination and dispersal mechanisms are dominated by a single guild. e.g. insects and birds, often generalist in nature. Functional richness had a strong correlation with Shannon's index and disturbance, but evenness and divergence were weakly related with others. Comparative assessment with null model showed no significant deviations from expected results indicating apparent lack of habitat filtering or resource competition among sacred groves. The trait homogenization and overall simplification of the grove biota is perhaps an outcome of rapid land-use change and its consequences on specialist members. This study shows sacred groves are important for maintaining a plethora of functional traits in the altered landscape. However, the prevalence of generalist mediators indicates maintenance of basic ecological functions in the landscape without support for specialist ones.

The effects of fragmentation and overstorey tree diversity on tree regeneration were assessed in tropical rain forests of the Western Ghats, India. Ninety plots were sampled for saplings (1–5 cm diameter at breast height (dbh); 5×5-m plots) and overstorey trees (>9.55 cm dbh; 20×20-m plots) within two fragments (32 ha and 18 ha) and two continuous forests. We tested the hypotheses that fragmentation and expected seed-dispersal declines (1) reduce sapling densities and species richness of all species and old-growth species, and increase recruitment of early-successional species, (2) reduce the prevalence of dispersed recruits and (3) increase influence of local overstorey on sapling densities and richness. Continuous forests and fragments had similar sapling densities and species richness overall, but density and richness of old-growth species declined by 62% and 48%, respectively, in fragments. Fragments had 39% lower densities and 24% lower richness of immigrant saplings (presumed dispersed into sites as conspecific adults were absent nearby), and immigrant densities of old-growth bird-dispersed species declined by 79%. Sapling species richness (overall and old-growth) increased with overstorey species richness in fragments, but was unrelated to overstorey richness in continuous forests. Our results show that while forest fragments retain significant sapling diversity, losses of immigrant recruits and increased overstorey influence strengthen barriers to natural regeneration of old-growth tropical rain forests.

Plant communities and ecosystem processes in seres at multiple altitudes in the tropical montane forest zone of northern Borneo were studied to understand the patterns and mechanisms of the secondary succession after shifting cultivation. A total of 25 stands (and additional three stands) were sampled with stand ages ranging from 2 to 55 y after slash and burn at altitudes between 900 and 1400 m asl. Plant species composition, above-ground biomass (AGB), chemical properties of soils, litter and foliar samples were investigated in each stand. A TWINSPAN analysis classified five plant communities primarily as a sere but with two altitudinal communities in the later successional phase. AGB accumulated steadily at the rate of 2.42 Mg ha−1 y−1 during the succession for the first 55 y due to the ontogenetic development of plants as well as plant community shifts. At the onset of secondary succession, pool of soil NO3-N and soil total P was high probably because burning caused flushes of minerals originating from the burnt plant materials. Pool of soil NO3-N and soil total P decreased with increasing stand age during the succession. Leaf-litter N:P ratios of dominant species significantly increased with increasing stand age suggesting disproportionately greater P deficiency than N deficiency in the later successional phase. It is suggested that tree species shifted to those of greater P-use efficiency during succession in response to decreasing soil P availability. We conclude that the interaction of altitude with the reduction of soil N and P availability was related to the altitudinal split of plant communities in the later phase, while pioneer communities were wide-ranging across altitudes reflecting richer soil nutrients.