Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T08:01:27.110Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Third culture kids in the outer circle: The development of sociolinguistic knowledge among local and expatriate children in Singapore

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  10 August 2017

Rebecca Lurie Starr ,
Andre Joseph Theng ,
Kevin Martens Wong ,
Natalie Jing Yi Tong ,
Nurul Afiqah Bte Ibrahim ,
Alicia Mei Yin Chua ,
Clarice Hui Min Yong ,
Frances Wei Loke ,
Helen Dominic  and
Keith Jayden Fernandez
...Show all authors
Rebecca Lurie Starr*
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Andre Joseph Theng
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Kevin Martens Wong
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Natalie Jing Yi Tong
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Nurul Afiqah Bte Ibrahim
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Alicia Mei Yin Chua
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Clarice Hui Min Yong
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Frances Wei Loke
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Helen Dominic
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Keith Jayden Fernandez
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
Matthew Tian Jing Peh
Affiliation:
National University ofSingapore
*
Address for correspondence: Rebecca Lurie Starr, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, National University of Singapore, Block AS5, 7 Arts Link, Singapore 117570rstarr@nus.edu.sg
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Children acquiring sociolinguistic knowledge in transnational migration settings must learn to evaluate multiple languages and dialects in a fluid, multifaceted social landscape. This study examines the sociolinguistic development of local and expatriate children in Singapore and investigates the extent to which they share sociolinguistic knowledge and norms. One hundred fourteen children ages five to nineteen completed a region identification task and an occupation judgment task, focusing on their perception of four regional English varieties: Australian English, Northern-China-accented English, Filipino English, and Singapore English. While all groups performed well on the region identification task, expatriate children outperformed locals within the youngest age group. Singaporean and expatriate children attending local schools showed greater familiarity with local norms than international school students in their occupation ratings. Participants mapped speakers to occupations by general prestige level, suggesting that children rely on indirect knowledge of social status rather than direct experience with speakers in their development of sociolinguistic evaluation. (Children's sociolinguistic development, transnational migration, language attitudes)*

Type
Articles
Information
Language in Society , Volume 46 , Issue 4 , September 2017 , pp. 507 - 546
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

This project was funded by a startup grant from the National University of Singapore and carried out with the assistance of the Undergraduate Research Opportunity program. The authors wish to acknowledge the various contributions made by Anirudh Krishnan, Stacey Sherwood, Rosey Billington, Lauren Gawne, Ng Qiu Rong, Kathleen Tan Li-Wun, Bai Lu, Cheng Yu Yao, Tang Dong Li, Jarrie Ann Roman, Brinda Balasubramaniam, Ong Wen Yi, and Tammy Lim. Portions of this article were originally presented at NWAV 44 in Toronto, Canada; LSA 2016 in Washington, DC; and NWAV Asia-Pacific 4 in Chiayi, Taiwan. The authors particularly thank Dennis Preston, Qing Zhang, Mie Hiramoto, and Lionel Wee for their helpful comments. Special thanks to all of the parents and children who have participated in the Voices of Children in Singapore project.

References

REFERENCES

Andersen, Elaine (1984). The acquisition of sociolinguistic knowledge: Some evidence from children's verbal role-play. The Western Journal of Speech Communication 48:125–44.Google Scholar
Ansaldo, Umberto (2004). The evolution of Singapore English: Finding the matrix. In Lim, Lisa (ed.), Singapore English: A grammatical description, 127–49. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Asia Society (2012). Lee Hsien Loong: Singapore in an ever-more connected world. October 12, 2012. Online: http://asiasociety.org/australia/lee-hsien-loong-singapore-ever-more-connected-world; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Beaverstock, Jonathan (2011). Servicing British expatriate ‘talent’ in Singapore: Exploring ordinary transnationalism and the role of the ‘expatriate’ club. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 37(5):709–28.Google Scholar
Bouchard, Ellen L. (1969). Psycholinguistic attitude study. Studies in Language and Language Behavior. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Research on Language and Language Behavior.Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. (2002). Dynamics of dialect convergence. Journal of Sociolinguistics 6(1):117–30.Google Scholar
Chen, Tina Tin San (1990). Language and personality: Attitudes of teachers and pupils towards varieties of English. Singapore: National University of Singapore, honours thesis.Google Scholar
Chng, Huang Hoon (2008). Beyond linguistic instrumentalism: The place of Singlish in Singapore. In Rubdy, Rani & Tan, Peter (eds.), Language as a commodity: Global structures, local marketplaces, 57–69. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Chua, Aaron (2012). The whys and hows of homeschooling in Singapore. KooBits. Online: http://www.koobits.com/2012/10/16/whys-and-hows-of-homeschooling-in-singapore; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Clopper, Cynthia G., & Pisoni, David B. (2004). Some acoustic cues for the perceptual categorization of American English regional dialects. Journal of Phonetics 32(1):111–40.Google Scholar
Corsaro, William A. (1979). Young children's conception of status and role. Sociology of Education 52(1):46–59.Google Scholar
Davie, Sandra (2015). Degree-seekers fly overseas for an edge. The Straits Times, August 6, 2015. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/degree-seekers-fly-overseas-for-an-edge; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Department of Statistics Singapore (2015). General household survey 2015. Online: http://www.singstat.gov.sg/publications/publications-and-papers/GHS/ghs2015; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Department of Statistics Singapore (2016). Population and population structure. Online: http://www.singstat.gov.sg/statistics/browse-by-theme/population-and-population-structure; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Deterding, David (2007). Singapore English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
The Economist (2015). Special report: Singapore: Seven million is a crowd. July 18, 2015. Online: http://www.economist.com/news/special-report/21657607-space-island-getting-tight-singaporeans-fear-foreigners-are-taking-up-too.Google Scholar
Floccia, Caroline; Butler, Joseph; Girard, Frédérique; & Goslin, Jeremy (2009). Categorization of regional and foreign accent in 5- to 7-year-old British children. International Journal of Behavioral Development 33(4):366–75.Google Scholar
Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard; & Watt, Dominic (2005). Phonological variation in child-directed speech. Language 81(1):177–206.Google Scholar
Gatti, Emanuele (2009). Defining the expat: The case of high-skilled migrants in Brussels. Brussels Studies 28:1–15.Google Scholar
Harrington, Jonathan; Cox, Felicity; & Evans, Zoe (1997). An acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels. Australian Journal of Linguistics 17(2):155–84.Google Scholar
Hirschfield, Lawrence A., & Gelman, Susan A. (1997). What young children think about the relationship between language variation and social difference. Cognitive Development 12(2):213–38.Google Scholar
HoneyKids (2016). HoneyKids Asia school selector: Avondale Grammar School. Online: http://schoolselector.honeykidsasia.com/avondale-grammar-school/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Huang, Shirlena, & Yeoh, Brenda S. A. (2005). Transnational families and their children's education: China's ‘study mothers’ in Singapore. Global Networks 5(4):379–400.Google Scholar
Jacobs, Andrew (2012). In Singapore, vitriol against Chinese newcomers. The New York Times, July 26, 2012, A4.Google Scholar
Jeffries, Ella (2015). Pre-school children's identification of familiar speakers and the role of accent features. York Papers in Linguistics Series 2(14):15–40.Google Scholar
Jeffries, Ella; Foulkes, Paul; & Llamas, Carmen (2014). Pre-schoolers’ categorization of speakers by regional accent. Paper presented at Variation in Language Acquisition 2, December 4, 2014. Grenoble, France.Google Scholar
Johnson, Daniel Ezra (2009). Getting off the GoldVarb standard: Introducing Rbrul for mixed-effects variable rule analysis. Language and Linguistic Compass 3(1):359–83.Google Scholar
Johnstone, Barbara (2009). Pittsburghese shirts: Commodification and the enregisterment of an urban dialect. American Speech 84(2):157–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kachru, Braj B. (2006). The English language in the outer circle. In Bolton, Kingsley & Kachru, Braj B. (eds.), World Englishes, 241–55. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Kang, Yoonhee (2012). Transnational motherhood in the making of global kids: South Korean educational migrants in Singapore. In Plüss, Caroline & Chan, Kwok-bun (eds.), Living intersections: Transnational migrant identifications in Asia, 149–66. Amsterdam: Springer.Google Scholar
Kerswill, Paul (1996). Children, adolescents, and language change. Language Variation and Change 8(2):177–202.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Labov, William (1966). The social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar
Lee, Pearl (2013). United World College halts intake of Singaporeans. The Straits Times, June 6, 2013. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/united-world-college-halts-intake-of-singaporeans; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Lee, Richard R. (1971). Effects of age on student perception of social dialects. National Center for Educational Research and Development Regional Research Program. Online: http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED053134.pdf; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Lim, Jialing (2016). Constructing nationality for transnational life: PRC student migrants. In Lian, Kwen Fee (ed.), Multiculturalism, migration, and the politics of identity in Singapore, 139–56. Singapore: Springer.Google Scholar
Long, Daniel, & Preston, Dennis (eds.) (2002). Handbook of perceptual dialectology, vol. 2. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Low, Ignatius (2015). A nation at ease with itself – quirks and all. The Straits Times, August 10, 2015. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/a-nation-at-ease-with-itself-quirks-and-all; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
McKenzie, Robert M. (2015). The sociolinguistics of variety identification and categorisation: Free classification of varieties of spoken English amongst non-linguist listeners. Language Awareness 24(2):150–68.Google Scholar
Marican, Wafa (2016). Homeschooling resources for Singaporean parents. The Asian Parent. Online: http://sg.theasianparent.com/homeschooling-resources-for-singaporean-parents/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Mathôt, Sebastiaan; Schreij, Daniel; & Theeuwes, Jan (2012). OpenSesame: An open-source, graphical experiment builder for the social sciences. Behavior Research Methods 44(2):314–24.Google Scholar
Millward, C. M., & Hayes, Mary (2011). A biography of the English language. 3rd edn. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education (2016a). Exemptions. Online: https://www.moe.gov.sg/education/education-system/compulsory-education/exemptions; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Ministry of Education (2016b). Foreign system schools. Online: https://www.moe.gov.sg/admissions/returning-singaporeans/singaporeans-returning-home/foreign-systems-schools; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Ministry of Manpower (2016). Foreign domestic worker eligibility. Online: http://www.mom.gov.sg/passes-and-permits/work-permit-for-foreign-domestic-worker/eligibility-and-requirements/fdw-eligibility; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Mougeon, Raymond; Nadasdi, Terry; & Rehner, Katherine (2010). The sociolinguistic competence of immersion students. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
National Population and Talent Division (2012). Issues paper 2012: A sustainable and vibrant economy. Online: http://population.sg/vision/economy/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
National Population and Talent Division (2016). Composition of Singapore's total workforce. Online: http://population.sg/resources/workforce-composition/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Nycz, Jennifer (2015). Second dialect acquisition: A sociophonetic perspective. Language and Linguistic Compass 9(11):469–82.Google Scholar
Pakir, Anne (1991). The range and depth of English-knowing bilinguals in Singapore. World Englishes 10(2):167–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Park, Joseph Sung-Yul, & Wee, Lionel (2009). The three circles redux: A market-theoretic perspective on World Englishes. Applied Linguistics 30(3):389–406.Google Scholar
Payne, Arvilla C. (1976). The acquisition of the phonological system of a second dialect . Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania dissertation.Google Scholar
Pearson (2016). Expressive vocabulary test, second edition (EVT-2). Online: http://www.pearsonclinical.com/language/products/100000416/expressive-vocabulary-test-second-edition-evt-2.html; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. (1989). Perceptual dialectology: Nonlinguists’ views of areal linguistics. Dordrecht: Foris.Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. (1999). Introduction. In Preston, Dennis R. (ed.), Handbook of perceptual dialectology, vol. 1, xiii–xl. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Rajaratnam, S. (1972). Singapore: Global city. Speech delivered to the Singapore Press Club, February 6, 1972. Online: http://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/data/pdfdoc/PressR19720206a.pdf; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Rubdy, Rani (2010). Problematizing the implementation of innovation in English language education in Singapore. In Wee, Lionel, Pakir, Anne, & Lim, Lisa (eds.), English in Singapore: Modernity and management, 207–33. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press.Google Scholar
Ryan, Ellen Bouchard; Carranza;, Miguel A. & Moffie, Robert W. (1977). Reactions toward varying degrees of accentedness in the speech of Spanish-English bilinguals. Language and Speech 20(3):267–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Schneider, Edgar (2007). Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Singapore Tourism Board (2013). Annual report on tourism statistics 2013. Online: https://www.stb.gov.sg/statistics-and-market-insights/MarketStatistics/annual%20report_2013_f_revised.pdf; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Smith, Jennifer; Durham, Mercedes; & Fortune, Liane (2007). Community, caregiver and child in the acquisition of variation in a Scottish dialect. Language Variation and Change 19(1):63–99.Google Scholar
Smith, Jennifer & Richards, Hazel (2013). The social and linguistic in the acquisition of sociolinguistic norms: Caregivers, children, and variation. Linguistics 51(2):285–324.Google Scholar
Starr, Rebecca (2016). Sociolinguistic variation and acquisition in two-way language immersion: Negotiating the standard. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali A., & Molfenter, Sonja (2007). How'd you get that accent? Acquiring a second dialect of the same language. Language in Society 36:649–75.Google Scholar
Tan, Amelia (2015). Hiring maids becomes more costly with tighter regulations. The Straits Times, January 19, 2015. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/hiring-maids-becoming-more-costly-with-tighter-regulations; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Tan, Ying Ying (2012). Age as a factor in ethnic accent identification in Singapore. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33(6):569–87.Google Scholar
Teng, Amelia (2015). Fee hike for international students and PRs attending local schools. The Straits Times, October 1, 2015. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/fee-hike-for-international-students-and-prs-attending-local-schools; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Teng, Amelia (2016). More Singaporeans expected to study in Australia. The Straits Times, May 16, 2016. Online: http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/education/more-singaporeans-expected-to-study-in-australia; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Team Expat (2015). Local education: Is it the right fit for your expat kids? The Expat Singapore. Online: https://singapore.theexpat.com/blog/local-education-for-expat-kids/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Team Expat (2016). Homeschooling in Singapore: What you need to know about it. The Expat Singapore. Online: https://singapore.theexpat.com/blog/homeschooling-in-singapore/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Tulshyan, Ruchika (2015). Some Singapore expats choose local education over international schools. The Wall Street Journal, April 30, 2015. Online: http://blogs.wsj.com/expat/2015/04/30/some-singapore-expats-choose-local-education-over-international-schools/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Tversky, Amos, & Kahneman, Daniel (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science 185(4157):1124–31.Google Scholar
Useem, John, & Useem, Ruth (1967). The interfaces of a binational third culture: A study of the American community in India. Journal of Social Issues 23(1):130–43.Google Scholar
Useem, Ruth, & Downie, Richard D. (1976). Third-culture kids. Today's Education 65(3):103–105.Google Scholar
UWCSEA (2016). UWCSEA at a glance. Online: https://www.uwcsea.edu.sg/about/uwcsea-at-a-glance; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Wang, Xinchun (1997). The acquisition of English vowels by Mandarin ESL learners: A study of production and perception. Vancouver: Simon Fraser University, M.A. thesis.Google Scholar
Williams, Angie; Garrett, Peter; & Coupland, Nikolas (1999). Dialect recognition. In Preston, Dennis (ed.), Handbook of perceptual dialectology, 345–58. Philadelphia: John Benjamins.Google Scholar
Wong, Chun Han (2013). The strike that rattled Singapore: A WSJ investigation. The Wall Street Journal, August 26, 2013. Online: http://blogs.wsj.com/indonesiarealtime/2013/08/26/the-strike-that-rattled-singapore-a-wsj-investigation/; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Wong, Tessa (2014). Unease in Singapore over Filipino workers. BBC News. December 29, 2014. Online: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-28953147; accessed June 5, 2017.Google Scholar
Yeoh, Brenda, & Lin, Weiqiang (2013). Chinese migration to Singapore: Discourses and discontents in a globalizing nation-state. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 22(1):31–54.Google Scholar