Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T19:09:16.777Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Organization of Staple Crop Production at K'axob, Belize

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Hope Henderson
Hope Henderson*
Affiliation:
Universidad de Los Andes, Transv. 14a No. 115-58, Bogotá, Colombia or 260 Crandon Blvd. #32, PMB 265, Key Biscayne, FL 33149
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This study examines variability in size, staple crop production, and wealth among households in the community of K'axob, Belize, from the ninth century B.C. until the ninth century A.D. Staple crop consumption and production are reconstructed from stable bone isotopes of 25 adults from 21 households. The formation of larger corporate households is documented from the spatial layout of 62 residences. Wealth differentiation is reconstructed by comparing architectural and ritual elements from 69 households. The formation of larger corporate households, the diversification of staple crop production, and the emergence of interhousehold wealth differentiation beginning in the fourth century B.C. coincided with the emergence of regional elites. However, changes in household size and staple crop production should be understood in terms of the high degree of continuity in the local agrarian economy. These findings suggest that elite political strategies had repercussions for the ways farming households managed staple crop production but that elites did not directly control production. The study also expands on current models of complex society that question the degree to which political elites directly managed the agrarian economy.

Este estudio examina la variación en el tamaño, la producción de alimentos, y la riqueza en la comunidad de K'axob, Belice, entre el noveno siglo a.C. y el noveno siglo d.C. Se reconstruyen los patrones a largo plazo en la producción de alimentos básicos usando análisis de isótopos estables en huesos de 25 adultos de 21 unidades domésticas. El estudio también analiza la organización espacial de 62 unidades domésticas. Estos análisis se enfocan en las diferencias entre casas corporativas y las demás de las casas pequeñas. Las diferencias de riqueza se reconstruyen con la comparación de los contextos rituales y los elementos arquitectónicos de 69 casas. La formación de las casas corporativas, la diversificación en la producción de alimentos básicos, y el aumento de las diferencias de riqueza coinciden con la aparición de élites regionales durante el cuarto siglo a.C. Sin embargo, estos cambios locales fueron sutiles y se deben entender en términos de la continuidad general en la economía local. Estos resultados sugieren que la política de las élites regionales tenía efectos sobre la manera en que las unidades domésticas manejaban la producción de alimentos básicos pero no parece que las élites regionales directamente manejaran esa producción. Estas conclusiones expanden los modelos de sociodades complejas que tienden a cuetionar el gracio en que las elites manejaban directamente la economía agrícola.

Type
Reports
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 14 , Issue 4 , December 2003 , pp. 469 - 496
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2003

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Ambrose, Stanley H. 1993 Isotopic Analysis of Paleodiets: Methodological and Interpretive Considerations. In Investigations of Ancient Human Tissue: Chemical Analysis in Anthropology, edited by Mary K. Sandford, pp. 59–130. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, New York.Google Scholar
Ames, Kenneth M. 1995 Chiefly Power and Household Production on the Northwest Coast. In Foundations of Social Inequality, edited by T. Douglas Price and Gary M. Feinman, pp. 155–188. Plenum Press, New York.Google Scholar
Angelini, Mary L. 1998 Crafting Pottery: A Study of Formative Maya Ceramic Technology at K’axob, Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Archaeology, Boston University.Google Scholar
Ashmore, Wendy 1981 Some Issues of Method and Theory in Lowland Maya Settlement Archaeology. In Lowland Maya Settlement Patterns, edited by Wendy Ashmore, pp. 37–70. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Benavides Castillo, Antonio 1987 Arquitectura domestica en Cobá. In Cobá, Quintana Roo, análysis de dos unidades habitacionales mayas del horizonte Clásico, edited by Linda Manzanilla. Institute de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Serie Antropológica, 82. Universidad Nacional Autonoma de México, Mexico, D.F. Google Scholar
Berman, Marc 1994 Lumkurmata: Household Archaeology in Prehispanic Bolivia. Princeton University Press, Princeton.Google Scholar
Blanton, Richard E. 1994 Houses and Households: A Comparative Study. Plenum Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanton, Richard E., Kowalewski, Stephen, Feinman, Gary M., and Finstein, Laura 1993 Ancient Mesoamerica: A Comparison of Change in Three Regions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bronson, Bennet 1966 Roots and the Subsistence of the Ancient Maya. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 22:251–279.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. 1976 Specialization and Exchange at the Late Postclassic (Aztec) Community of Huexotla, Mexico. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. 1994 Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World: An Introduction. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 3–13. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M., and Earle, Timothy K. 1987 Specialization, Exchange, and Complex Societies: An Introduction. In Specialization, Exchange, and Complex Societies, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and Timothy K. Earle, pp. 1–9. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Carrasco, Pedro 1976a The Joint Family in Ancient Mexico: The Case of Molotla. In Essays on Mexican Kinship, edited by Hugo G. Nutini, Pedro Carrasco, and John M. Taggart, pp. 45–64. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carrasco, Pedro 1976b La sociedad Mexicana antes de la Conquista. In Historia general de México, vol. 1, edited by Daniel Cosio Villegas, pp. 165–286. El Colegio de México, Mexico, D.F. Google Scholar
Clark, John E., and Blake, Michael 1994 The Power of Prestige: Competitive Generosity and the Emergence of Rank Society in Lowland Mesoamerica. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 17–30. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Cliff, Maynard B. 1988 Domestic Architecture and Origins of Complex Society at Cerros. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard R. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 199–225. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Cliff, Maynard B., and Crane, Cathy J. 1989 Changing Subsistence Economy at a Late Preclassic Maya Community. In Research in Economic Anthropology: Prehispanic Maya Economies of Belize, edited by Patricia A. McAnany and Barry L. Issac, pp. 295–323. Supplement, 4. JAI Press, Greenwich, Connecticut.Google Scholar
Crane, Cathy J., and Carr, Helen S. 1994 The Integration and Quantification of Economic Data from a Late Preclassic Maya Community in Belize. In Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, edited by Kristine D. Sobolik, pp. 66–79. Center for Archeological Investigations Occasional Papers 22. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
D’Altroy, Terrence N. 1994 Public and Private Economy in the Inka Empire. In The Economic Anthropology of the State, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel, pp. 169–222. Monographs in Economic Anthropology, 11. University Press of America, Lanham, Maryland.Google Scholar
D’Altroy, Terrence N., and Earle, Timothy K. 1985 Staple Finance, Wealth Finance, and Storage in the Inka Political Economy. Current Anthropology 26:187–196.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Earle, Timothy K. 1978 Economic and Social Organization of a Complex Chiefdom: The Halelea District, Kaua’i, Hawaii. University of Michigan Museum of Anthropology, Anthropological Papers, 63. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Eaton, Jack D. 1982 Operation 2025: An Elite Residential Group at Colhá. In Archaeology at Colhá, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Harry J. Shafer, and Jack D. Eaton, pp. 123–140. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio; and Centra Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.Google Scholar
Escobedo, J. T. 1980 Excavations at Operation 2008. In The Colhá Project Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Jack D. Eaton, and Harry J. Shafer, pp. 105–120. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio; and Centra Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.Google Scholar
Ettlinger, Nancy 1983 The Excavations at Southern Kokeal. In Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, edited by B. L. Turner and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 158–193. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Farriss, Nancy 1984 Maya Society under Colonial Rule: The Collective Enterprise of Survival. Princeton University Press, Princeton.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Feinman, Gary M., and Neitzel, Jill 1984 Too Many Types: An Overview of Sedentary Prestate Societies in the Americas. In Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, vol. 7, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 39–102. Academic Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Flannery, Kent V. (editor) 1976 The Early Mesoamerican Village. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Flannery, Kent V., and Marcus, Joyce 1983 The Cloud People. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Freidel, David A. 1979 Cultural Areas and Interaction Spheres: Contrasting Approaches to the Emergence of Civilization in the May a Lowlands. American Antiquity 44:6–54.Google Scholar
Fried, Morton H. 1967 The Evolution of Political Society. Random House, New York.Google Scholar
Fry, Robert E. 1990 Disjunctive Growth in the Maya Lowlands. In Precolombian Population History in the Maya Lowlands, edited by T. Patrick Culbert and Don S. Rice, pp. 285–300. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Gerry, John P. 1993 Diet and Status among the Classic Maya: An Isotopic Perspective. Ph.D. dissertation, Harvard University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Gerry, John P., and Krueger, Harold W. 1997 Regional Diversity in Classic Maya Diets. In Bones of the Maya: Studies of Ancient Skeletons, edited by Stephen L. Whittington and David M. Reed, pp. 196–207. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Gibson, Eric C. 1982 Investigations at Operation 1002, a Late Classic Maya Household Group at Colhá, Belize. In Archaeology at Colhá, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Harry J. Shafer, and Jack D. Eaton, pp. 123–140. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio; and Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman 1985 Nohmul: A Prehistoric Maya Community in Belize, Excavations 1973–1983. BAR International Series, 250. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman (editor) 1991 Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Gerhardt, J. C. 1991 Offertory Practices: Caches. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 225–228. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, Kosakowsky, Laura J., Anne Pyburn, K., Rose, John R., Myskens, Deborah, and Addyman, Thomas 1988 The Evolution of an Ancient Maya City: Nohmul. National Geographic Research 4:474–495.Google Scholar
Hammond, Norman, and Miksicek, Charles H. 1981 Ecology and Economy of a Formative Period Site at Cuello, Belize, journal of Field Archaeology 8:259–269.Google Scholar
Harrison, Peter D. 1989 Functional Influences on Settlement Pattern in the Communities of Pulltrouser Swamp, Northern Belize. In Households and Communities: Proceedings of the 21st Annual Chachmool Conference, edited by Scott MacEachern, David J. W. Archer, and Richard D. Gavin, pp. 460–468. University of Calgary Archaeological Association, Calgary.Google Scholar
Harrison, Peter D. 1990 Revelation in Ancient Maya Subsistence. In Vision and Revision in Maya Studies, edited by Florence Clancey and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 99–114. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Harrison, Peter D. 1996 Settlement and Land Use in the Pulltrouser Swamp Archaeological Zone, Northern Belize. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 177–190. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1990 The Effect of the Inka State on Sausa Agricultural Production and Crop Consumption. American Antiquity 55:262–290.Google Scholar
Hastorf, Christine A. 1993 Agriculture and the Onset of Political Inequality before the Inka. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hather, Jon G., and Hammond, Norman 1994 Ancient Maya Subsistence Diversity: Root and Tuber Remains from Cuello, Belize. Antiquity 68:330–335.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haviland, William A. 1985 Excavations in Small Residential Groups of Tikal: Group 4F-1 and 4F-2. Tikal Report, 19; University Museum Monograph, 58. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.Google Scholar
Hayden, Brian, and Cannon, Aubrey 1982 The Corporate Group as an Archaeological Unit. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 1:132–158.Google Scholar
Hellmuth, Nicholas 1977 Cholti-Lacandon (Chiapas) and Petén-Ytzá Agriculture, Settlement Pattern, and Population. In Social Process in Maya Prehistory, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 421–448. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Henderson, Hope H. 1998 The Organization of Staple Crop Production in Middle Formative, Late Formative, and Classic Period Farming Households at K’axob, Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pittsburgh.Google Scholar
Isaza Aizpurúa, Ilean Isel., and McAnany, Patricia A. 1999 Adornment and Identity: Shell Ornaments from Formative K’axob. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:117–127.Google Scholar
Johnson, Gary 1987 The Changing Organization of Uruk Administration on the Susiana Plain. In The Archaeology of Western Iran: Settlement and Society from Prehistory to the Islamic Conquest, edited by Frank Hole, pp. 107–140. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Krueger, Harold W., and Sullivan, Charles H. 1984 Models for Carbon Isotope Fractionation between Diet and Bone. In Stable Isotopes in Nutrition, edited by John R. Turnlund and Peter E. Johnson, pp. 205–220. ACS Symposium Series, 258. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kurjack, Edward B. 1974 Prehispanic Lowland Maya Community and Social Organization: A Case Study at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan, México. Middle American Research Institute Publication, 38. Tulane University, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Lee-Thorp, Julia A., Sealy, Judith C., and van der Merwe, Nikolaas J. 1989 Stable Bone Isotope Ratio Differences between Bone Collagen and Bone Apatite, and Their Relationship to Diet. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:585–599.Google Scholar
Levi, Laura 1996 Sustainable Production and Residential Variation: A Historical Perspective on Pre-Hispanic Domestic Economies in the Maya Lowlands. In The Managed Mosaic: Ancient Maya Agriculture and Resource Use, edited by Scott L. Fedick, pp. 92–206. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Lockhart, James 1992 The Nahuas after the Conquest. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
López Austin, Alfredo, and Luján, Leonardo López 1996 El Pasado Indígena. El Colegio de México, Fideicomisco Historia de las Américas, Fondo de Cultura Económica, Mexico, D.F. Google Scholar
López Varela, Sandra L. 1996 The K’axob Formative Ceramics: The Search for Regional Integration through a Reappraisal of Ceramic Analysis and Classification in Northern Belize. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of London.Google Scholar
Manzanilla, Linda 1993 Anatomía de un conjunto residential teotihuacano en Oztoyahualco. Universidad National Autónoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropologicas, Mexico, D.F. Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1986 Lithic Technology and Exchanges among Wetland Farmers of the Eastern Maya Lowlands. Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1992 Agricultural Tasks and Tools: Patterns of Stone Tool Discard near Prehistoric Maya Residences Bordering Pulltrouser Swamp, Belize. In Gardens of Prehistory: The Archaeology of Settlement Agriculture in Greater Mesoamerica, edited by Thomas Killon, pp. 184–214. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1993 The Economics of Social Power and Wealth among Eighth-Century Maya Households. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 65–89. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A. 1995 Living with the Ancestors: Kinship and Kingship in Ancient Maya Society. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A., and López Varela, Sandra L. 1999 Re-Creating the Formative Maya Village of K’axob: Chronology, Ceramic Complexes, and Ancestors in Architectural Context. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:147–168.Google Scholar
McAnany, Patricia A., Storey, Rebecca, and Lockard, Angela K. 1999 Mortuary Ritual and Family Politics at Formative and Early Classic K’axob, Belize. Ancient Mesoamerica 10:129–146.Google Scholar
Miksicek, Charles H. 1983 Macrofloral Remains of the Pulltrouser Swamp Area: Settlements and Fields. In Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, edited by B. L. Turner and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 94–104. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Miksicek, Charles H. 1991 The Natural and Cultural Landscape of PreClassic Cuello. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 70–84. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Netting, Robert M. 1993 Smallholders, Householders, Farm Families and the Ecology of Intensive, Sustainable Agriculture. Stanford University Press, Stanford.Google Scholar
Pohl, Mary 1990 Ancient Maya Wetland Agriculture: Excavations on Albion Island, Northern Belize. Westview Press, Boulder.Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne 1987 Settlement Patterns at Nohmul, a Prehistoric Maya City in Northern Belize, Central America. Mexican 9(5): 110–114.Google Scholar
Pyburn, K. Anne 1989 Prehistoric Maya Community and Settlement at Nohmul, Belize. BAR International Series, 509. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Reed, David M. 1994 Ancient Maya Diet at Copán, Honduras, as Determined through the Analysis of Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotopes. In Paleonutrition: The Diet and Health of Prehistoric Americans, edited by Kristine D. Sobolik, pp. 210–221. Center for Archaeological Investigations Occasional Papers, 22. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.Google Scholar
Ricketson, Oliver G., and Ricketson, Edith B. 1937 Uaxactún, Guatemala, Group E, 1926–1937, part 1: The Excavations. Publication, 477. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Ringle, William M. 1985 Formative Residences at Komchen, Yucatan, México. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Ringle, William M., and Wyllys Andrews, E. V 1988 Formative Residences at Komchen, Yucatan, México. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard R. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 171–197. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Roemer, E. 1980 Operation 2007: A Preliminary Report on the Excavation of a Late Classic Lithic Workshop. In The Colhá Project Second Season, 1980 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Jack D. Eaton, and Harry J. Shafer, pp. 87–104. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio; and Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.Google Scholar
Sabloff, Jeremy A., and Henderson, John S. 1993 Introduction. In Lowland Maya Civilization in the Eighth Century A.D., edited by Jeremy A. Sabloff and John S. Henderson, pp. 1–9. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Sahlins, Marshall 1972 Stone Age Economics. Aldine-Atherton, Chicago.Google Scholar
Santley, Robert, and Hirth, Kenneth 1993 Prehispanic Domestic Units in Western Mesoamerica. CRC Press, Boca Raton.Google Scholar
Scarborough, Vernon L. 1991 Archaeology at Cerros, Belize, Central America, vol. 3: The Settlement System in a Late Preclassic Maya Community. Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.Google Scholar
Service, Elman R. 1962 Primitive Social Organization: An Evolutionary Perspective. Random House, New York.Google Scholar
Shafer, Harry J. 1982 Maya Lithic Craft Specialization in Northern Belize. In Archaeology at Colhá, Belize: The 1981 Interim Report, edited by Thomas R. Hester, Harry J. Shafer, and Jack D. Eaton, pp. 39–59. Center for Archaeological Research, University of Texas, San Antonio; and Centro Studi e Ricerche Ligabue, Venice.Google Scholar
Shafer, Harry J. 1983 The Lithic Artifacts of the Pulltrouser Swamp Area: Settlements and Fields. In Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, edited by B. L. Turner and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 212–245. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael E. 1987 Household Possessions and Wealth in Agrarian States: Implications for Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 6:297–335.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Charles H., and Krueger, Harold W. 1981 Carbon Isotope Analysis of Separate Chemical Phases in Modern and Fossil Bone. Nature 292:305–333.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Charles H., and Krueger, Harold W. 1983 Carbon Isotope Ratios of Bone Apatite and Animal Diet Reconstruction. Nature 301:177–178.Google Scholar
Sullivan, Lauren A. 1991 Preclassic Domestic Architecture at Colhá, Belize. Unpublished M.A. thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Thompson, Eric H. 1892 The Ancient Structures of Yucatan not Communal Dwellings. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 8:262–269.Google Scholar
Thompson, J. Eric S. 1931 Archaeological Investigations in the Southern Cayo District, British Honduras. Anthropology Series, 17, vol. 3. Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turner, B. L., and Harrison, Peter D. (editors) 1983 Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Tykot, Rob H., van der Merwe, Nikolaas J., and Hammond, Norman 1996 Stable Isotope Analysis of Bone Collagen, Bone Apatite, and Tooth Enamel in the Reconstruction of Human Diet: A Case Study from Cuello, Belize. In Archaeological Chemistry: Organic, Inorganic, and Biochemical Analysis, edited by Mary V. Orna, pp. 355–365. American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
White, Christine D. 1997 Ancient Diet at Lamanai and Pacbitun: Implications for the Ecological Model of Collapse. In Bones of the Maya: Studies of Ancient Skeletons, edited by Stephen L. Whittington and David M. Reed, pp. 171–180. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
White, Christine D., and Schwarcz, Henry 1989 Ancient Maya Diet: As Inferred from Isotopic and Elemental Analysis of Human Bone. Journal of Archaeological Science 16:451–474.Google Scholar
White, Christine D., Wright, Lori E., and Pendergast, David 1994 Biological Disruption in the Early Colonial Period at Lamanai. In Wake of Contact: Biological Responses to Conquest, edited by Clark Larsen and George Milner, pp. 135–145. Wiley-Liss, New York.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R. 1988 Maya Household Organization: Evidence and Analogies. In Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past, edited by Richard R. Wilk and Wendy Ashmore, pp. 135–152. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R. 1991 Household Ecology, Economic Change and Domestic Life among the Kechi Maya in Belize. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R., and Ashmore, Wendy (editors) 1988 Household and Community in the Mesoamerican Past. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R., and Netting, Robert 1984 Households: Changing Forms and Functions. In Households: Comparative and Historical Studies of the Domestic Group, edited by Robert Netting, Richard R. Wilk, and E. J. Arnould, pp. 1–28. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wilk, Richard R., and Rathje, William R. 1982 Household Archaeology. American Behavioral Scientist 25:617–639.Google Scholar
Williams, Barbara J., and Harvey, H. R. (editors) 1997 The Códice de Santa María Asunción, Facsimile and Commentary: Households and Lands in Sixteenth-Century Teptlaoztoc. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.Google Scholar
Wing, Elizabeth s. 1981 A Comparison of Olmec and Maya Foodway s. In The Olmec and Their Neighbors: Essays in Memory of Matthew W. Stirling, edited by Elizabeth P. Benson, pp. 21–28. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Wing, Elizabeth S., and Scudder, S. J. 1991 The Exploitation of Animals. In Cuello: An Early Maya Community in Belize, edited by Norman Hammond, pp. 84–97. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Winter, Marcus C. 1974 Residential Patterns at Monte Albán, Oaxaca, México. Science 186:981–986.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Winter, Marcus C. 1976 The Archaeological Household Cluster in the Valley of Oaxaca. In The Early Mesoamerican Village, edited by Kent V. Flannery, pp. 25–31. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Wiseman, Fredrick M. 1983a Analysis of Pollen from the Fields at Pulltrouser Swamp. In Pulltrouser Swamp: Ancient Maya Habitat, Agriculture, and Settlement in Northern Belize, edited by B. L. Turner and Peter D. Harrison, pp. 105–119. University of Texas Press, Austin.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wiseman, Fredrick M. 1983b Subsistence and Complex Societies: The Case of the May a. In Advances in Archeological Method and Theory, vol. 6, edited by Michael B. Schiffer, pp. 143–189. Academic Press, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wright, Henry 1969 The Administration of Rural Production in an Early Mesopotamian Town. Museum of Anthropology, Anthropology Papers, 38. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wright, Lori E. 1994 The Sacrifice of the Earth? Diet, Health, and Inequality in the Pasión Maya Lowlands. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wright, Lori E., and White, Christine D. 1996 Human Biology in the Classic Maya Collapse: Evidence from Paleopathology and Paleodiet. Journal of World Prehistory 10:147–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar