1. For the cultural roots of this attitude, see Richard M. Morse, “A Prolegomenon to Latin American Urban History,” Hispanic American Historical Review 52 (Aug. 1972): 359–94. Stuart B. Schwartz has published a comparative article based on the urban-orientation thesis, “Cities of Empire: Mexico and Bahia in the Sixteenth Century,” Journal of Inter-American Studies 11 (Oct. 1969):616–37. Not all historians agree with this thesis as applied to rural elites: e.g., Rolando Mellafe, The Latifundio and the City in Latin American History (Toronto, 1971).

2. The classic statement on the urbanization of the planter elite is Gilberto Freyre's The Mansions and the Shanties: The Making of Modern Brazil, ed. and trans. Harriet de Onís (New York: Knopf, 1963).

3. Euclides da Cunha, Rebellion in the Backlands (Os Sertões), trans. Samuel Putnam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944), p. 481, note 5. A sampling of the novels, first published in the 1930s, and 1940s: José Lins do Rego, Plantation Boy, trans. Emmi Baum (New York: Knopf, 1966); Jorge Amado, The Violent Land, trans. Samuel Putnam (New York: Knopf, 1965); Erico Veríssimo, Time and the Wind, trans. L. L. Barrett (New York: Macmillan, 1951). The two most important social histories: F. J. Oliveira Vianna, Populações meridionais do Brasil: História–organização–sociologia, 2 vols. (Rio de Janeiro, 1952; vol. 1 first pub. 1933); Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves (Casa Grande e Senzala): A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization, 2d ed. rev. (New York: Knopf, 1956; first publ. 1933).

4. Emílio Willems, Uma vila brasileira: Tradição e transição (São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1961); first pub. as Cunha: Tradição e transição em uma cultural rural do Brasil (São Paulo: Secretaria da Agricultura do Estado, 1947). For a critique of this work and for research and publications by Willems' students, see Robert W. Shirley, The End of a Tradition: Culture Change and Development in the Município of Cunha, São Paulo, Brazil (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1971), appendix A.

5. T. Lynn Smith, Brazil: People and Institutions (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1946; 4th ed. rev., 1972).

6. Donald Pierson (with the assistance of Levy Cruz and others), Cruz das Almas, a Brazilian Village, Institute of Social Anthropology, Publication No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1948); Charles Wagley, Amazon Town: A Study of Man in the Tropics (New York: Knopf, 1964; first pub. 1953); Marvin Harris, Town and Country in Brazil (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956); Harry W. Hutchinson, Village and Plantation Life in Northeastern Brazil (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1957).

7. Harris, Town and Country, pp. 274–89.

8. Shepard Forman gives a recent overview of messianism and social banditry in his book The Brazilian Peasantry (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1975), chap. 6. On coronelismo, see Eul-Soo Pang, “Coronelismo in Northeast Brazil,” in The Caciques: Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973), pp. 65–88 (notes on pp. 171–78); and Maria Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, O mandonismo local na vida política brasileira e outros ensaios (São Paulo: Alfa-Omega, 1976).

9. Antonio Candido, Os parceiros do Rio Bonito: Estudo sôbre o caipira paulista e a transformação dos seus meios de vida, Coleção Documentos Brasileios (Rio de Janeiro: José Olympio, 1964).

10. Maria Isaura Pereira de Queiroz, Bairros rurais paulistas: Dinâmica das relações bairro rural-cidade (São Paulo: Duas Cidades, 1973), esp. pp. 121–47.

11. Shirley, The End of a Tradition.

12. Maxine L. Margolis, The Moving Frontier: Social and Economic Change in a Southern Brazilian Community (Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1973); Stanley J. Stein, Vassouras: A Brazilian Coffee County, 1850–1900 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1957).

13. Shepard Forman, The Raft Fishermen: Tradition and Change in the Brazilian Peasant Economy (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970). For a more general statement of this thesis, see Forman, The Brazilian Peasantry.

14. On the German and Italian immigrants' contribution to development, see Manuel Diégues Júnior, Imigração, urbanização, industrialização (Rio de Janeiro: Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Educationais, 1964).

15. Traced in broad outline by Paul Singer, Desenvolvimento econômico e evolução urbana (análise da evolução econômica de São Paulo, Blumenau, Pôrto Alegre, Belo Horizonte e Recife) (São Paulo: Nacional, 1968), chap. 4.

16. For a description of the urban renewal carried out in Rio under the direction of Francisco Pereira Passos in 1903–5, see Norma Evenson, Two Brazilian Capitals: Architecture and Urbanism in Rio de Janeiro and Brasília (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973), pp. 37–40. Richard M. Morse summarizes the principal traits of early Brazilian town planning in “Brazil's Urban Development: Colony and Empire,” Journal of Urban History 1 (Nov. 1974): 39–42.

17. E.g., the parade of plans drawn up for Rio de Janeiro by Alfred Agache, Le Corbusier, and Doxiadis, from the 1920s to the 1960s. Evenson, Two Brazilian Capitals, pp. 40–63.

18. For a demonstration that this attitude does not descend from Iberian sources, see Richard M. Morse, “Recent Research on Latin American Urbanization: A Selective Survey with Commentary,” LARR 1, no. 3 (Fall 1965):59–63.

19. Redfield's theory and subsequent criticisms are summarized by Michael D. Olien, Latin Americans: Contemporary Peoples and Their Cultural Traditions (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973), pp. 160–67. Oscar Lewis formally presented his theories in two keynote articles, “Urbanization without Breakdown,” The Scientific Monthly 75, no. 1 (1952):31–41, and “The Culture of Poverty,” Scientific American 215, no. 4 (1966):19–25; for a critique see Richard M. Morse, “Trends and Issues in Latin American Urban Research, 1965–1970 (Part II),” LARR 6, no. 2 (Summer 1971): 29–30. One of the most recent assaults on the theory of marginality, supported by impressive research, is Janice E. Perlman's The Myth of Marginality: Urban Poverty and Politics in Rio de Janeiro (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).

20. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, Empresário industrial e desenvolvimento econômico no Brasil (São Paulo: Difusão Européia do Livro, 1964); Anthony Leeds, “Brazilian Careers and Social Structure, a Case History and Model,” in Contemporary Cultures and Societies of Latin America, ed. Dwight B. Heath and Richard N. Adams (New York: Random House, 1965), pp. 379–404.

21. Morse, “Trends and Issues,” pp. 24–27.

22. Émile Durkheim, Suicide: A Study in Sociology, trans. John A. Spaulding and George Simpson, ed. George Simpson (New York: Free Press, 1966), pp. 246–54.

23. Robert K. Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure, enlarged ed. (New York: Free Press, 1968), chaps. 6–7.

24. For recent evidence, see Perlman, The Myth of Marginality; Larissa Lomnitz, “Dinámica del desarrollo de la unidad doméstica en una barriada de la ciudad de México,” in Asentamientos urbanos y organización socioproductiva en la historia de América Latina, comp. Jorge E. Hardoy and Richard P. Schaedel (Buenos Aires: Ediciones SIAP, 1977), pp. 349–62.

25. This description applies especially to the so-called “middle class without money” that Andrew H. Whiteford found in Querétaro, Mexico; see his Two Cities of Latin America: A Comparative Description of Social Classes (Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1964).

26. Among the most prominent of these sociologists are Florestan Fernandes, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, and Octávio Ianni. For a conspectus of research by these and other investigators, see Richard M. Morse, From Community to Metropolis: A Biography of São Paulo, Brazil, new and enlarged ed. (New York: Octagon Books, 1974), chap. 23.

27. Morse, From Community to Metropolis, pp. 333–42. Lucila Herrmann pioneered the socioeconomic explanation of paulista town development, in her “Evolução da estrutura social de Guaratinguetá num período de trezentos annos,” Revista de Administração 2, no. 5–6 (1948):3–326.

28. Richard M. Morse has synthesized the literary image of Platine urbanism, in “The City-Idea in Argentina: A Study in Evanescence,” Journal of Urban History 2 (May 1976): 307–30. Much of the social-science research on Buenos Aires has been sponsored by the Centro de Estudios Urbanos y Regionales, at the Instituto Torcuato Di Telia. See the interview by Paul Goodwin, Hugh M. Hamill, Jr., and Bruce M. Stave, “A Conversation with Richard M. Morse,” Journal of Urban History 2 (May 1976): 350.

29. Singer, Desenvolvimento economico.