Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-2brh9 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T02:05:49.980Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Counterterrorism War Paradigm versus International Humanitarian Law: The Legal Contradictions and Global Consequences of the US “War on Terror”

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  19 March 2019

Lisa Hajjar
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Since 2001, we have witnessed the development of a counterterrorism war paradigm built to advance claims about the post-9/11 scope and discretion of US executive power and to articulate specific interpretations of national security interests and strategic objectives in the “war on terror.” What makes this a paradigm rather than merely a conglomeration of evolving policies is the cohesiveness and mutual reinforcement of its underlying rationales about the rights of the US government to prosecute a territorially unbounded war against an evolving cast of enemies. Drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of a juridical field, the article focuses on how officials who constructed a legal framework for this paradigm, rather than disregarding international law wholesale, have engaged in interpretations and crafted rationales to evade some international humanitarian law (IHL) rules and norms while rejecting the underlying logic or applicability of others. This article traces the counterterrorism war paradigm’s development and explains how it now competes with and threatens to supersede the customary law principles enshrined in IHL.

Type
Articles
Information
Law & Social Inquiry , Volume 44 , Issue 4 , November 2019 , pp. 922 - 956
Copyright
© 2019 American Bar Foundation 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Ackerman, Spencer. “41 Men Targeted but 1, 147 People Killed: US Drone Strikes – The Facts on the Ground.” Guardian, November 24, 2014a.Google Scholar
Ackerman, Spencer.. “US Cited Controversial Law in Decision to Kill US Citizen by Drone.” Guardian, June 23, 2014b.Google Scholar
Ackerman, Spencer.. “Inside the Fight to Reveal CIA’s Torture Secret.” Guardian, September 9, 2016a.Google Scholar
Ackerman, Spencer.. “‘A Constitutional Crisis’: The CIA Turns on the Senate.” Guardian, September 10, 2016b.Google Scholar
Ackerman, Spencer.. “No Looking Back: The CIA Torture Report’s Aftermath.” Guardian, September 11, 2016c.Google Scholar
Agamben, Giorgio. State of Exception. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.Google Scholar
Alston, Philip. “The CIA and Targeted Killings beyond Borders.” Harvard National Security Journal 2 (2011): 283–446.Google Scholar
Alvarez, José E. “Hegemonic International Law Revisited.” American Journal of International Law 97, no. 4 (2003): 873–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Anderson, Kenneth. “Targeted Killing in U.S. Counterterrorism Strategy and Law.” Brookings Series on Counterterrorism and American Statutory Law 14 (2009). https://www.brookings.edu/research/targeted-killing-in-u-s-counterterrorism-strategy-and-law/.Google Scholar
Anderson, Kenneth.. “Readings: The Canonical National Security Law Speeches of Obama Administration Officials and General Counsels.” Lawfareblog, June 11, 2012. https://www.lawfareblog.com/readings-canonical-national-security-law-speeches-obama-administration-senior-officials-and-general.Google Scholar
Becker, Jo, and Shane, Scott. “Secret ‘Kill List’ Proves a Test of Obama’s Principles and Will.” New York Times, May 29, 2012.Google Scholar
Belczyk, Jacklyn. “Federal Appeals Court Overturns Two Convictions of Former al Qaeda Media Director.” Jurist, July 14, 2014. https://www.jurist.org/news/2014/07/federal-appeals-court-overturns-two-convictions-of-former-al-qaeda-media-director/.Google Scholar
Bolton, John. “Full Text of John Bolton’s Speech to the Federalist Society.” Al Jazeera, September 10, 2018. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/09/full-text-john-bolton-speech-federalist-society-180910172828633.html.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre. “The Force of Law: Toward a Sociology of the Juridical Field.” Hastings Law Review 38 (1987): 805–53.Google Scholar
Bravin, Jess. The Terror Courts: Rough Justice at Guantánamo Bay. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2013.Google Scholar
Brooks, Rosa Ehrenreich. “War Everywhere: Rights, National Security Law, and the Law of Armed Conflict in the Age of Terror.” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 153, no. 2 (2004): 675–761.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bush, George W. Presidential Military Order: Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War against Terrorism. White House, November 13, 2001.Google Scholar
Campbell, Colm. “‘Wars on Terror’ and Vicarious Hegemons: The UK, International Law, and the Northern Ireland Conflict.” International and Comparative Law Quarterly 54, no. 2 (2005): 321–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cavallaro, James, Sonnenberg, Stephan, and Knuckey, Sarah. Living under Drones: Death, Injury and Trauma to Civilians from US Drone Practices in Pakistan. Stanford, CA, and New York: Stanford Law School and New York University School of Law, 2012.Google Scholar
Chamayou, Grégoire. A Theory of the Drone. New York: The New Press, 2015.Google Scholar
Cheney, Richard B. “Remarks.” American Enterprise Institute, May 21, 2009. http://www.aei.org/publication/remarks-by-richard-b-cheney/.Google Scholar
Cline, Donna. “An Analysis of the Legal Status of CIA Officers Involved in Drone Strikes.” San Diego International Law Journal 15 (2013): 51–115.Google Scholar
Cohen, Stanley. States of Denial: Knowing about Atrocities and Suffering. New York: Polity Press, 2001.Google Scholar
Cohn, Marjorie. “US Military and CIA Leaders May Be Investigated for War Crimes.” TruthOut, November 16, 2017.Google Scholar
Cole, David. Torture Memos: Rationalizing the Unthinkable. New York: New Press, 2009.Google Scholar
Cole, David.. “The Drone Memo: Secrecy Made It Worse.” New York Review of Books, June 24, 2014.Google Scholar
Common Dreams. “UN Official: Aspects of US Drone Program Clearly ‘War Crimes.’” Common Dreams, October 26, 2012. https://www.commondreams.org/news/2012/10/26/un-official-aspects-us-drone-program-clearly-war-crimes.Google Scholar
Davis, Julie Hirschfeld, and Landler, Mark. “Trump Outlines New Afghanistan War Policy with Few Details.” New York Times, August 21, 2017.Google Scholar
Deeks, Ashley. “Domestic Humanitarian Law: Developing the Law of War in Domestic Courts.” Virginia Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper No. 2013-39, October 9, 2013. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2338033.Google Scholar
Denbeaux, Mark, Denbeaux, Jonathan W., and Gregorek, John. Report on Guantánamo Detainees: A Profile of 517 Detainees through Analysis of Department of Defense Data. New York: Seton Hall University, 2006.Google Scholar
Devereaux, Ryan. “Manhunting in the Hindu Kush.” Intercept, October 15, 2015.Google Scholar
Dezalay, Yves, and Garth, Bryant. “Constructing Law Out of Power: Investing in Human Rights as an Alternative Political Strategy.” In Cause Lawyering and the State in Global Context, edited by Sarat, Austin and Scheingold, Stuart, 354–80. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dezalay, Yves, and Madsen, Mikael Rask. “The Force of Law and Lawyers: Pierre Bourdieu and the Reflexive Sociology of Law.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 8, no. 1 (2012): 433–52.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dörmann, Knut. “The Legal Situation of ‘Unlawful/Unprivileged Combatants.’” International Review of the Red Cross 85 (2003): 45–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eachambadi, Ram. “Supreme Court Denies Review in Conviction of Bin Laden’s Personal Assistant.” Jurist, October 10, 2017. https://www.jurist.org/news/2017/10/supreme-court-denies-review-in-conviction-of-bin-ladens-personal-assistant/.Google Scholar
Emmerson, Ben. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms while Countering Terrorism. UN Doc. A/HRC/25/59, February 28, 2014. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/document/ahrc2559.php.Google Scholar
European Parliament. Joint Motion for a Resolution on the Use of Armed Drones. February 25, 2014. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?pubRef=-//EP//TEXT+MOTION+P7-RC-2014-0201+0+DOC+XML+V0//EN.Google Scholar
Fallon, Mark. Unjustifiable Means: The Inside Story of How the CIA, the Pentagon, and the US Government Conspired to Torture. New York: Regan Arts, 2017.Google Scholar
Feldman, Yotam, and Blau, Uri. “Consent and Advise.” Ha’Aretz, January 29, 2009.Google Scholar
Filkins, Dexter. The Forever War. New York: Knopf, 2008.Google Scholar
Frankenberg, Günter. “Torture and Taboo: An Essay Comparing Paradigms of Organized Cruelty.” American Journal of Comparative Law 56, no. 2 (2008): 403–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Glazier, David W. “A Court without Jurisdiction: A Critical Assessment of the Military Commission Charges against Omar Khadr.” Loyola Law School, Legal Studies Paper No. 2010-37, August 31, 2010. http://ssrn.com/abstract=1669946.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, Jack. The Terror Presidency: Law and Judgment inside the Bush Administration. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2007.Google Scholar
Gordon, Neve. “Human Rights as a Security Threat: Lawfare and the Campaign against Human Rights NGOs.” Law & Society Review 48, no. 2 (2014): 311–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, Karen J., ed. The Torture Debate in America. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Greenberg, Karen J., and Dratel, Joshua L., eds. The Torture Papers: The Road to Abu Ghraib. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenberg, Karen J., and Dratel, Joshua L.. The Enemy Combatant Papers: American Justice, the Courts, and the War on Terror. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008.Google Scholar
Gregory, Derek. “Vanishing Points.” In Violent Geographies: Fear, Terror, and Political Violence, edited by Gregory, Derek and Pred, Allan, 205–36. New York: Routledge, 2006.Google Scholar
Gregory, Derek.. “The Everywhere War.” The Geographical Journal 177, no. 3 (2011): 238–50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gronke, Paul, Rejali, Darius, Drenguis, Dustin, and Hicks, James. “US Public Opinion on Torture: 2001–2009.” P.S.: Political Science & Politics 43, no. 3 (2010): 437–44.Google Scholar
Hafetz, Jonathan. Habeas Corpus after 9/11: Confronting America’s New Global Detention System. New York: New York University Press, 2011.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafetz, Jonathan, and Denbeaux, Mark, eds. The Guantánamo Lawyers: Inside a Prison outside the Law. New York: New York University Press, 2011.Google Scholar
Hagan, John, and Levi, Ron. “Crimes of War and the Force of Law,” Social Forces 83, no. 4 (2005): 1499–1534.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa. “International Humanitarian Law and ‘Wars on Terror’: A Comparative Analysis of Israeli and American Doctrines and Policies.” Journal of Palestine Studies 36 (2006): 21–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “Universal Jurisdiction as Praxis: An Option to Pursue Legal Accountability for Superpower Torturers.” In When Governments Break the Law: The Rule of Law and the Prosecution of the Bush Administration, edited by Sarat, Austin and Hussein, Nasser, 87–120. New York: New York University Press, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “Anatomy of the US Targeted Killing Policy.” Middle East Report 264 (2012a): 10–17.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “Wikileaking the Truth about American Unaccountability for Torture.” Societies without Borders 7 (2012b): 192–225.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “The Long Shadow of the CIA at Guantánamo.” Middle East Report 273 (2014): 20–26.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “Lawfare and Armed Conflict: A Comparative Analysis of Israeli and US Targeted Killing Policies and Legal Challenges against Them.” In Life in the Age of Drone Warfare, edited by Parks, Lisa and Kaplan, Caren, 59–88. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2017.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “How Government Secrecy Stymied the 9/11 Terror Prosecution.” Nation, July 19, 2018a.Google Scholar
Hajjar, Lisa.. “In Defense of Lawfare: The Value of Litigation in Challenging Torture.” In Confronting Torture: Essays on the Ethics, Legality, History, and Psychology of Torture Today, edited by Anderson, Scott A. and Nussbaum, Martha C., 294–319. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2018b.Google Scholar
Hakimi, Monica. “Navigating the Terrain at the Intersection of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law.” Just Security, May 11, 2018. https://www.justsecurity.org/56145/navigating-terrain-intersection-human-rights-humanitarian-law/.Google Scholar
Haque, Adil Ahmad. “Ambiguity in the Conduct of Hostilities.” Just Security, May 10, 2018a. https://www.justsecurity.org/56087/ambiguity-conduct-hostilities/.Google Scholar
Haque, Adil Ahmad. “At a Crossroad: The International Criminal Court’s Afghanistan Probe and the International Law Commission.” Just Security, April 19, 2018b. https://www.justsecurity.org/55111/intl-criminal-courts-afghanistan-probe-international-law-commission/.Google Scholar
Hawkins, Katherine. “The Obama Administration.” In The Report of the Constitution Project’s Task Force on Detainee Treatment (April 16, 2013): 332–34.Google Scholar
Heller, Kevin Jon. “‘One Hell of a Killing Machine’: Signature Strikes and International Law.” Journal of International Criminal Justice 11 (2013): 89–119.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heller, Kevin Jon. “Specially-Affected States and the Formation of Custom.” Amsterdam Center for International Law Working Paper, October 25, 2017. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3058617.Google Scholar
Hersh, Seymour. “Manhunt: The Bush Administration’s New Strategy in the War against Terrorism.” New Yorker, December 21, 2002.Google Scholar
Hersh, Seymour.. “Torture at Abu Ghraib: American Soldiers Brutalized Iraqis. How Far Up Does Responsibility Go?” New Yorker, May 10, 2004.Google Scholar
Holder, Eric. “Attorney General Eric Holder Speaks at Northwestern University School of Law.” Department of Justice, March 5, 2012. https://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/attorney-general-eric-holder-speaks-northwestern-university-school-law.Google Scholar
Horton, Scott. “The Dangers of Lawfare.” Case Western Reserve University Journal of International Law 43 (2010): 163–82.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. Getting Away with Torture: The Bush Administration and Mistreatment of Detainees. New York: HRW, 2011.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. “Between a Drone and Al-Qaeda”: The Civilian Cost of US Targeted Killing in Yemen. New York: HRW, 2013.Google Scholar
International Committee of the Red Cross. “Customary International Humanitarian Law.” ICRC, October 29, 2010. https://www.icrc.org/en/document/customary-international-humanitarian-law-0.Google Scholar
Isikoff, Michael. “Justice Department Memo Reveals Legal Case for Drone Strikes on Americans.” NBC News, February 4, 2013. http://investigations.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/02/04/16843014-justice-department-memo-reveals-legal-case-for-drone-strikes-on-americans.Google Scholar
Jaffer, Jameel. “The Drone Memo Cometh.” Just Security, June 21, 2014. https://www.justsecurity.org/11986/drone-memo-cometh/.Google Scholar
Jaffer, Jameel.. The Drone Memos: Targeted Killing, Secrecy and the Law. New York: The New Press, 2016.Google Scholar
Jaffer, Jameel, and Singh, Amrit. Administration of Torture: From Washington to Abu Ghraib and Beyond. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnsen, Gregory. The Last Refuge: Yemen, Al-Qaeda and America’s War in Arabia. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2013.Google Scholar
Johnson, Douglas A., Mora, Alberto, and Schmidt, Averell. “The Strategic Costs of Torture: How ‘Enhanced Interrogations’ Hurt America.” Foreign Affairs (September/October 2016): 121–32.Google Scholar
Jones, Craig A. “Frames of Law: Targeting Advice and Operational Law in the Israeli Military.” Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 33 (2015): 676–96.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jones, Craig A.. “Lawfare and the Juridification of Late Modern War.” Progress in Human Geography 40, no. 2 (2016): 221–3.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Junod, Tom. “The Lethal Presidency of Barack Obama.” Esquire, July 9, 2012.Google Scholar
Junod, Tom.. “The Murderous Core of Obama’s Drone Memo.” Esquire Blog, June 24, 2014. https://www.esquire.com/news-politics/news/a29274/drone-memo-junod/.Google Scholar
Kahn, Azmat, and Gopal, Anand. “The Uncounted.” New York Times Magazine, November 16, 2017.Google Scholar
Kennedy, David. Of War and Law. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006.Google Scholar
Khalili, Laleh. Time in the Shadows: Confinement in Counterinsurgencies. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2012.Google Scholar
Kiriakou, John, with Ruby, Michael. Reluctant Spy: My Secret Life in the CIA’s War on Terror. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2012.Google Scholar
Klaidman, Daniel. “Drones: How Obama Learned to Kill.” Daily Beast, May 28, 2012.Google Scholar
Knuckey, Sarah. “Analysis of the Stimson Drone Task Force Report.” Just Security, June 27, 2014a. https://www.justsecurity.org/12357/stimson-drone-task-force-report-knuckey/.Google Scholar
Knuckey, Sarah.. “Key Findings in New UN Special Rapporteur Report on Drones.” Just Security, March 4, 2014b. https://www.justsecurity.org/7819/key-findings-special-rapporteur-report-drones/.Google Scholar
Koh, Harold Hongju. “The Obama Administration and International Law, Speech to the American Society of International Law.” State Department, March 25, 2010. https://www.state.gov/documents/organization/179305.pdf.Google Scholar
Koh, Harold Hongju. “The Trump Administration and International Law.” Washburn Law Journal 56 (2017): 413–69.Google Scholar
Koskenniemi, Martti. “International Law and Hegemony: A Reconfiguration.” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 17, no. 2 (2004): 197–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kutz, Christopher. “How Norms Die: Torture and Assassination in American Security Policy.” Ethics and International Affairs 28 (2014): 425–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luban, David. Torture, Power, and Law. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Margulies, Joseph. Guantánamo and the Abuse of Presidential Power. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2006.Google Scholar
Masco, Joseph. The Theater of Operations: National Security Affect from the Cold War to the War on Terror. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayer, Jane. The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How the War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals. New York: Doubleday, 2008.Google Scholar
Mayer, Jane.. “The Predator War: What Are the Risks of the CIA’s Covert Drone Program?” New Yorker, October 26, 2009.Google Scholar
Mayer, Jane.. “The Trial.” New Yorker, February 15, 2010.Google Scholar
Mayerfeld, Jamie. “Playing by Our Own Rules: How US Marginalization of Human Rights Law Led to Torture.” Harvard Human Rights Journal 20 (2007): 89–140.Google Scholar
McKelvey, Tara. “Inside the Killing Machine.” Newsweek, February 13, 2011.Google Scholar
McKelvey, Tara.. “Interview with Harold Koh, Obama’s Defender of Drone Strikes.” The Daily Beast, April 8, 2012.Google Scholar
Mégret, Frédéric. “War and the Vanishing Battlefield.” Loyola University Chicago International Law Review 9, no. 1 (2012): 131–52.Google Scholar
Miller, Greg. “Lawmakers Seek to Stymie Plan to Shift Control of Drone Campaign from CIA to Pentagon.” Washington Post, January 15, 2014.Google Scholar
Mitchell, James, with Harlow, Bill. Enhanced Interrogation: Inside the Minds and Motives of the Islamic Terrorists Trying to Destroy America. New York: Crown Forum, 2016.Google Scholar
New York City Bar Association Committee on International Law. The Legality under International Law of Targeted Killing by Drones Launched by the United States. New York: NYCBA, 2014.Google Scholar
New York Times Editorial Board. “A Thin Rationale for Killing.” New York Times, June 23, 2014.Google Scholar
Ohlin, Jens David. The Assault on International Law. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.Google Scholar
Parry, John. “States of Torture: Debating the Future of Coercive Interrogation.” Tennessee Law Review 84, no. 1 (2016): 1–32.Google Scholar
Perugini, Nicola, and Gordon, Neve. The Human Right to Dominate. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prabhat, Devyani. Unleashing the Force of Law: Legal Mobilization, National Security, and Basic Freedoms. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Priest, Dana. “CIA Holds Terror Suspects in Secret Prisons.” Washington Post, November 2, 2005.Google Scholar
Priest, Dana.. “US Military Teams, Intelligence Deeply Involved in Aiding Yemen on Strikes.” Washington Post, January 27, 2010.Google Scholar
Resnick, Judith. “Detention, the War on Terror, and the Federal Courts.” Columbia Law Review 110 (2010): 579–686.Google Scholar
Revkin, Mara. “When Terrorists Govern: Why the Islamic State and Other State-Building Armed Groups Require a New Targeting Approach.” Harvard National Security Journal 9 (2018): 100–45.Google Scholar
Rineheart, Jason. “Counterterrorism and Counterinsurgency.” Perspectives on Terrorism 4 (2010). http://www.terrorismanalysts.com/pt/index.php/pot/article/view/122/html.Google Scholar
Rosen, Nir. Aftermath: Following the Bloodshed of America’s Wars in the Muslim World. New York: Nation Books, 2010.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, Carol. “By the Numbers.” Miami Herald, September 26, 2018.Google Scholar
Sands, Philippe. Lawless World: America and the Making and Breaking of Global Rules from FDR’s Atlantic Charter to George W. Bush’s Illegal War. London: Viking, 2005.Google Scholar
Sands, Philippe.. Torture Team: Rumsfeld’s Memo and the Betrayal of American Values. Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.Google Scholar
Savage, Charlie. “Secret US Memo Made Legal Case to Kill a Citizen.” New York Times, October 8, 2011.Google Scholar
Savage, Charlie, and Baker, Peter. “Obama, in a Shift, to Limit Targets of Drone Strikes.” New York Times, May 22, 2013.Google Scholar
Savage, Charlie, and Schmitt, Eric. “Trump Poised to Drop Some Limits on Drone Strikes and Commando Raids.” New York Times, September 21, 2017.Google Scholar
Scahill, Jeremy. Dirty Wars: The World Is a Battlefield. New York: Nation Books, 2013.Google Scholar
Scahill, Jeremy, and Greenwald, Glenn. “The NSA’s Secret Role in the US Assassination Program.” Intercept, February 10, 2014.Google Scholar
Serle, Jack. “Naming the Dead Project Records the Names of over 700 Killed by Drones in Pakistan.” Bureau of Investigative Journalism, July 31, 2014. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2014-07-31/naming-the-dead-project-records-the-names-of-over-700-killed-by-drones-in-pakistan.Google Scholar
Shachtman, Noah. “Drone ‘Surge.’” Wired, February 5, 2009.Google Scholar
Sifton, John. “A Brief History of Drones.” Nation, February 7, 2012.Google Scholar
Singh, Amrit. Globalizing Torture: CIA Secret Detention and Extraordinary Rendition. New York: Open Society Justice Initiative, 2013.Google Scholar
Sissons, Miranda, and Al-Saiedi, Abdelrazzaq. A Bitter Legacy: Lessons of De-Baathification in Iraq. New York: International Center for Transitional Justice, 2013.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael. “States that Come and Go: Mapping the Geolegalities of the Afghanistan Intervention.” In The Expanding Spaces of Law: A Timely Legal Geography, edited by Braverman, Irus, Blomley, Nicholas, Delaney, David, and Kedar, Alexander, 142–66. Palo Alto: Stanford Law Books, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, R. Jeffrey, and Eggen, Dan. “Gonzales Helped Set the Course for Detainees; Justice Nominee’s Hearings Likely to Focus on Interrogation Policies.” Washington Post, January 5, 2005.Google Scholar
Soufan, Ali, with Freedman, Daniel. Black Banners: The Inside Story of 9/11 and the War against Al-Qaeda. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 2011.Google Scholar
Special Rapporteur for Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions. Civil and Political Rights, Including the Questions of Disappearances and Summary Executions. Commission on Human Rights, UN Doc. E/CN.4/2003/3, January 13, 2003.Google Scholar
Stampnitzky, Lisa. “The Lawyers’ War: States and Human Rights in a Transnational Field.” The Sociological Review Monographs 62, no. 1 (2016): 170–93.Google Scholar
Stimson Center. Recommendations and Report of the Task Force on US Drone Policy. Washington, DC: Stimson Center, 2014.Google Scholar
Strawser, Bradley Jay, ed. Opposing Perspectives on the Drone Debate. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Timm, Trevor. “Niger Is the Perfect Example of the US State of Perma-War.” Guardian, October 27, 2017.Google Scholar
US Department of State. Initial Report of the United States of America to the UN Committee against Torture, October 15, 1999.Google Scholar
Vladek, Steve. “What the Heck Is Happening in al-Nashiri? The Ten-Layer Dip at the Heart of the Latest Guantánamo Mess.” Just Security, May 11, 2018. https://www.justsecurity.org/56151/heck-happening-al-nashiri-ten-layer-dip-heart-latest-guantanamo-mess/.Google Scholar
Weizman, Eyal. The Least of All Possible Evils: Humanitarian Violence from Arendt to Gaza. New York: Verso, 2012.Google Scholar
White House. “Procedures for Approving Direct Action against Terrorist Targets Located outside the United States and Areas of Active Hostilities.” White House, May 22, 2013 (declassified August 6, 2016). https://www.documentcloud.org/documents/3006440-Presidential-Policy-Guidance-May-2013-Targeted.html.Google Scholar
Worthington, Andy. The Guantánamo Files: The Stories of the 774 Detainees in America’s Illegal Prison. New York: Pluto Press, 2007.Google Scholar
Yoo, John. War by Other Means: An Insider’s Account of the War on Terror. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 2006.Google Scholar

CASES CITED

New York Times Co. v. U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 915 F. Supp. 2d 508 (S.D.N.Y. 2013).Google Scholar
Public Committee against Torture in Israel v. Government of Israel HCJ 5100/94 (1999) (Isr.).Google Scholar
Public Committee against Torture in Israel v. Government of Israel HCJ 769/02 (2006) (Isr.).Google Scholar