Hostname: page-component-5c6d5d7d68-ckgrl Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-08-09T20:48:55.912Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Socialpsychological Processes Underlying Attitudes Toward Legal Punishment

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 July 2024

Neil Vidmar  and
Dale T. Miller
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

This paper develops a theoretical framework for investigating the socialpsychological dynamics of punishment reactions to criminal offenders. Two basic types of punishment motives are delineated: behavior control and retribution. The target, or focus, of these motives may be the offender or a broader social audience. Within each of the four cells defined by this classification, we review the literature describing how punishment responses are influenced by characteristics of the rule, the offense, and the offender, as well as by the attitude and personality of the reactor. A large number of empirically testable propositions are generated.

Type
Research Article
Information
Law & Society Review , Volume 14 , Issue 3: Contemporary Issues in Law and Social Science , Spring 1980 , pp. 565 - 602
Copyright
Copyright © 1980 Law and Society Association.

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

In addition to the support by NSF for this special issue of the Law & Society Review, the first author is indebted to the Russell Sage Foundation and the Battelle Seattle Research Center for support during a period when ideas contained in this article were in their germinal stages. Both authors wish to acknowledge that a Canada Council grant also aided preparation of the article. The authors thank Philip Brickman, Robert Hogan, and Charles Thomas for comments on earlier drafts of this paper. Special thanks are due to Richard Abel, who provided ideas and outstanding editorial assistance.

References

ABEL, Richard (1974) “A Comparative Theory of Dispute Institutions in Society,” 8 Law & Society Review 217.Google Scholar
ADORNO, Theodor, Else, FRENKEL-BRUNSWICK, Daniel, LEVINSON and R. Nevitt, SANFORD (1950) The Authoritarian Personality. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
AKMAN, D., A., NORMANDEAU and S., TURNER (1967) “The Measurement of Delinquency in Canada,” 58 Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 330.Google Scholar
ALEXANDER, Franz and Hugo, STAUB (1956) The Criminal, the Judge and the Public. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
ALLEN, Ronald (1975) “Retribution in a Modern Penal Law: The Principle of Aggravated Harm,” 25 Buffalo Law Review 1.Google Scholar
ANDENEAS, Johannes (1974) Punishment and Deterrence. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
ANDERSON, Norman (1976) “Equity Judgments as Information Integration,” 33 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 291.Google Scholar
ARENDT, Hannah (1976) Eichmann in Jerusalem. New York: Penguin Books.Google Scholar
AUSTIN, William, Elaine, WALSTER and Mary, UTNE (1976) “Equity and the Law: The Effect of a Harmdoer's Suffering in the Act,” in Berkowitz, Leonard and Walster, Elaine (eds.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 9. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
BARRY, Herbert, Irvin, CHILD and Margaret, BACON (1959) “Relations of Child Training to Subsistence Economy,” 61 American Anthropologist 51.Google Scholar
BAXI, Upendra (1974) “Comment—Durkheim and Legal Evolution: Some Problems of Disproof,” 8 Law & Society Review 645.Google Scholar
BEDAU, Hugo (1973) “Furman's Wake in the Land of Bean and Cod,” 53 The Prison Journal 4.Google Scholar
BEDAU, Hugo and Chester, PIERCE (1976) Capital Punishment in the United States. New York: AMS Press, Inc.Google Scholar
BERG, Kathleen S. and Neil, VTDMAR (1975) “Authoritarianism and Recall of Evidence about Criminal Behavior,” 9 Journal of Research in Personality 147.Google Scholar
BITTNER, Egon and Anthony, PLAIT (1966) “The Meaning of Punishment,” 2 Issues in Criminology 79.Google Scholar
BLUMSTEIN, Alfred and Jacqueline, COHEN (1973) “A Theory of the Stability of Punishment,” 64 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 198.Google Scholar
BOEHM, Virginia (1968) “Mr. Prejudice, Miss Sympathy, and the Authoritarian Personality: An Application of Psychological Measuring Techniques to the Problem of Jury Bias,” 1968 Wisconsin Law Review 734.Google Scholar
BOYDELL, Craig and Carl, GRINDSTAFF (1972) “Public Opinion and Criminal Law: An Empirical Test of Public Attitudes Toward Legal Sanctions,” in C.Google Scholar
Boydell, C. Grindstaff and Whitehead, P. (eds.) Deviant Behavior and Societal Reaction. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
Boydell, C. Grindstaff (1974) “Societal Reaction to Violent Personal Crime,” in Boydell, C., Whitehead, P. and Grindstaff, C. (eds.) The Administration of Criminal Justice in Canada. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar
BRICKMAN, Philip (1977) “Crime and Punishment in Sports and Society,” 33 Journal of Social Issues 140.Google Scholar
BROOKS, W. Neil, Anthony, DOOB and H.M., KIRSHENBAUM (1975) “Character of the Victim in the Trial of a Case of Rape.” University of Toronto [Unpublished Manuscript].Google Scholar
BURGESS, Anthony (1962) A Clockwork Orange. New York: Ballantine Books.Google Scholar
BYRNE, Donn (1971) The Attraction Paradigm. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
CARROLL, John and John, PAYNE (1977) “Crime Seriousness, Recidivism Risk, and Causal Attributions in Judgments of Prison Terms by Students and Experts,” 62 Journal of Applied Psychology 595.Google Scholar
CENTERS, Richard, Robert, SHOMER and Aroldo, RODRIGUES (1970) “A Field Experiment in Interpersonal Persuasion Using Authoritative Influence,” 38 Journal of Personality 392.Google Scholar
CHAGNON, Napoleon and William, IRONS (1979) Evolutionary Biology and Human Social Behavior. North Scituate, Mass.: Duxbury.Google Scholar
CHANDLER, David (1976) Capital Punishment in Canada. Ottawa: McClelland & Stewart.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
CHEIN, Isidor (1975) “There Ought to Be a Law: But Why?” 31 Journal of Social Issues 221.Google Scholar
COHEN, Stanley and Jock, YOUNG (eds.) (1973) The Manufacture of News. London: Constable.Google Scholar
COOK, Beverly (1973) “Sentencing Behavior of Federal Judges: Draft Cases, 1972,” 42 Cincinnati Law Review 597.Google Scholar
COSER, Lewis (1956) The Functions of Social Conflict. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
CUNNINGHAM, John and Harold, KELLEY (1975) “Causal Attributions for Interpersonal Events of Varying Magnitude,” 43 Journal of Personality 74.Google Scholar
DANIELS, Stephen (1979) “Social Science and Death Penalty Cases,” 1 Law & Policy Quarterly 336.Google Scholar
DEJONG, William, William, MORRIS and Albert, HASTORF (1976) “Effect of an Escaped Accomplice on the Punishment Assigned to a Criminal Defendant,” 33 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 192.Google Scholar
DEVOS, George and Arthur, HIPPLER (1969) “Cultural Psychology: Comparative Studies of Human Behavior,” in Lindzey, G. and Aronson, E. (eds.) Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 4. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
DRABECK, Thomas and E., QUARANTELLI (1967) “Scapegoats, Villains and Disasters,” 4 Trans-Action 12.Google Scholar
DURKHEIM, Emile (1964) The Division of Labor in Society (G. Simpson, trans.). Toronto: Collier-Macmillan Canada Ltd.Google Scholar
DUSTIN, David and Henry, DAVIS (1967) “Authoritarianism and Sanctioning Behavior,” 6 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 222.Google Scholar
EBBESSEN, Ebbe and Vladimir, KONECNI (1975) “Decision Making and Information Integration in the Courts: The Setting of Bail,” 32 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 803.Google Scholar
ERIKSON, Kai (1966) Wayward Puritans: A Study in the Sociology of Deviance. New York: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
ERIKSON, Maynard and Jack, GIBBS (1979) “On the Perceived Severity of Legal Penalties,” 70 The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 102.Google Scholar
EZORSKY, Gertrude (ed.) (1972) Philosophical Perspectives on Punishment. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar
FARINA, Amerigo, Barry, CHAPNICK, Jason, CHAPNIK and Rafaello, MISITI (1972) “Political Views and Interpersonal Behavior,” 22 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 273.Google Scholar
FESTINGER, Leon (1954) “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes,” 7 Human Relations 117.Google Scholar
FOUCAULT, Michel (1977) Discipline and Punish. New York: Pantheon Books.Google Scholar
FRIEDMAN, Lawrence (1975) The Legal System: A Social Science Perspective. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
FURSTENBERG, Frank (1971) “Public Reaction to Crime in the Streets,” 40 The American Scholar 601.Google Scholar
GARCIA, Luis and William, GRIFFITH (1978) “Authoritarianism-situation Interactions in the Determination of Punitiveness: Engaging Authoritarian Ideology,” 12 Journal of Research in Personality 469.Google Scholar
GARDNER, Martin (1976) “The Renaissance of Retribution—An Examination of Doing Justice,” 1976 Wisconsin Law Review 781.Google Scholar
GARFINKEL, Harold (1956) “Conditions of Successful Degradation Ceremonies,” 61 American Journal of Sociology 420.Google Scholar
GERBER, Rudolph and McANANY, Patrick (1972) Contemporary Punishment-Views, Explanations, and Justifications. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar
GIBBONS, Don (1969) “Crime and Punishment: A Study in Social Attitudes,” 47 Social Forces 391.Google Scholar
GIBBS, Jack (1966) “Sanctions,” 14 Social Problems 147.Google Scholar
GIBBS, Jack (1975) Crime, Punishment, and Deterrence. N.Y.: Elsevier.Google Scholar
GOLDSTEIN, Tom (1978) “Death Penalty Furor Won't Go Away,” New York Times (March 26), IV, p. 6.Google Scholar
GRIFFITHS, John (1970) “Ideology in Criminal Procedure or a Third Model of the Criminal Process,” 79 Yale Law Journal 359.Google Scholar
GRIFFITHS, John (1973) “Book Review of G. Ezorsky (ed.) Philosophical Perspectives on Punishment” 48 New York University Law Review 817.Google Scholar
GUSFIELD, Joseph (1963) Symbolic Crusade: Status Politics and the American Temperance Movement. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press.Google Scholar
GUSFIELD, Joseph (1967) “Moral Passage: The Symbolic Process in Public Designations of Deviance,” 15 Social Problems 175.Google Scholar
HAMILTON, V. Lee (1976) “Individual Differences in Ascriptions of Responsibility, Guilt, and Appropriate Punishment,” in Bermant, G., Nemeth, C. and Vidmar, N. (eds.) Psychology and the Law. Lexington, Mass.: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
HAMILTON, V. Lee (1978a) “Who Is Responsible? Toward a Social Psychology of Responsibility Attribution,” 41 Social Psychology 316.Google Scholar
HAMILTON, V. Lee (1978b) “Obedience and Responsibility: A Jury Simulation,” 36 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 126.Google Scholar
HAMILTON, V. Lee and Laurence, ROTKIN (1979) “The Capital Punishment Debate: Public Perceptions of Crime and Punishment,” 9 Journal of Applied Social Psychology 350.Google Scholar
HARRIS, Louis (1968) “Changing Public Attitudes Toward Crime and Corrections,” 32 Federal Probation 9.Google Scholar
HARRIS, Louis (1973) “The Harris Survey,” 1 Current Opinion 80.Google Scholar
HART, H.L.A. (1968) Punishment and Responsibility. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
HART, Irvin (1957) “Maternal Child-Rearing Practices and Authoritarian Ideology,” 55 Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 232.Google Scholar
HEIDER, Fritz (1958) The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. New York: Wiley.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HOGAN, Robert (1980) “Retributive Justice,” in Lerner, M. (ed.) The Justice Motive in Social Behavior. New York: Plenum (in press).Google Scholar
HOGARTH, John (1971) Sentencing as a Human Process. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
HOLLANDER, Edwin (1958) “Conformity, Status, and Idiosyncrasy Credit,” 65 Psychological Review 117.Google Scholar
INKELES, Alex and Daniel J., LEVINSON (1969) “National Character: The Study of Model Personality and Sociocultural Systems,” in Lindzey, G. and Aronson, E. (eds.) Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. 4. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
JUROW, George (1971) “New Data on the Effect of a ‘Death-Qualified’ Jury on the Guilt Determination Process,” 84 Harvard Law Review 567.Google Scholar
KALVEN, Harry Jr. and Hans, ZEISEL (1966) The American Jury. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
KAPLAN, John (1971) Marijuana—The New Prohibition. New York: Meridian Books.Google Scholar
KELLE Y, Harold (1971) Attribution in Social Interaction. New York: General Learning Press.Google Scholar
KELMAN, Herbert and Lee, LAWRENCE (1972) “Assignment of Responsibility in the Case of Lt. Calley: Preliminary Report on a National Survey,” 28 Journal of Social Issues 177.Google Scholar
KELSEN, Hans (1943) Society and Nature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
KIPNIS, David and Joseph, COSENTINO (1969) “Use of Leadership Powers in Industry,” 53 Journal of Applied Psychology 460.Google Scholar
KIRSCHT, John and Ronald, DILLEHAY (1967) Dimensions of Authoritarianism. Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press.Google Scholar
KOHN, Melvin (1969) Class and Conformity. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
LASSWELL, Harold and Richard, DONNELLY (1959) “The Continuing Debate over Responsibility: An Introduction to Isolating the Condemnation Sanction,” 68 Yale Law Journal 869.Google Scholar
LERNER, Melvin and Dale, MILLER (1978) “Just World Research and the Attribution Process: Looking Back and Ahead,” 85 Psychological Bulletin 1030.Google Scholar
LERNER, Melvin, Dale, MILLER and John, HOLMES (1976) “Deserving and the Emergence of Forms of Justice,” in Berkowitz, L. (ed.) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 9. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
LEVENTHAL, Gerald (1976) “Fairness in Social Relationships,” in Thibaut, J., Spence, J.T. and Carson, R. (eds.) Contemporary Topics in Social Psychology. Morristown, N.J.: General Learning Press.Google Scholar
LEVINSON, Daniel and Phyllis, HUFFMAN (1955) “Traditional Family Ideology and its Relation to Personality,” 23 Journal of Personality 251.Google Scholar
LEWIN, Kurt (1951) Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper.Google Scholar
LINDE SMITH, Alfred (1968) “Punishment,” 13 International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences 217–21. New York: MacMillan Co. & The Free Press.Google Scholar
MÄKELÄ, Klaus (1966) “Public Sense of Justice and Judicial Practice,” 10 Acta Sociologica 42.Google Scholar
McFATTER, Robert (1978) “Sentence Strategies and Justice: Effects of Punishment Philosophy and Sentencing Decisions,” 36 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 1490.Google Scholar
MEAD, George (1918) “The Psychology of Punitive Justice, 23 American Journal of Sociology 577.Google Scholar
MENNINGER, Karl (1966) The Crime of Punishment. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
MERTON, Robert (1957) Social Theory and Social Structure. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press.Google Scholar
MILLER, Dale (1977a) “Altruism and Threat to a Belief in a Just World,” 13 Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 113.Google Scholar
MILLER, Dale (1977b) “Personal Deserving Versus Justice for Others: An Exploration of the Justice Motive,” 13 Journal of Experimental Social Pychology 1.Google Scholar
MILLER, Dale (1978) “The Effects of Perpetrator-Relevant Characteristics on Reactions to Victims of Injustices.” Presented at the Symposium on ”Equity, Retribution, and Other Factors in Legal Justice Reactions,“ Annual Meeting of the Eastern Psychological Association, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
MILLER, Dale and McCANN, C. Douglas (1979) “Children's Reactions to the Perpetrators and Victims of Injustices,” 50 Child Development 861.Google Scholar
MILLER, Dale and Michael, ROSS (1975) “Self-serving Biases in the Attribution of Causality: Fact or Fiction?” 82 Psychological Bulletin 213.Google Scholar
MILLS, Judson (1958) “Changes in Moral Attitudes Following Temptation,” 26 Journal of Personality 517.Google Scholar
MITCHELL, Herman (1973) “Authoritarian Punitiveness in Simulated Juror Decision-making: The Good Guys Don't Always Wear White Hats.” Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago.Google Scholar
MITCHELL, Herman and Donn, BYRNE (1973) “The Defendant's Dilemma: Effects of Jurors' Attitudes and Authoritarianism on Judicial Decisions,” 25 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 123.Google Scholar
MORRIS, Norval (1974) “The Future of Imprisonment: Toward a Punitive Philosophy,” 72 Michigan Law Review 1161.Google Scholar
NADER, Laura (1975) “Forums for Justice: A Cross-cultural Perspective,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 151.Google Scholar
NISBETT, Richard and Timothy, WILSON (1977) “Telling More Than We Know: Verbal Reports on Mental Processes,” 84 Psychological Review 231.Google Scholar
OPPENHEIMER, Heinrich (1913) The Rationale of Punishment. London: University of London Press.Google Scholar
ORLAND, Leonard and Harold, TYLER Jr. (1974) Justice in Sentencing. Mineola, N.Y.: Foundation Press.Google Scholar
ORWELL, George (1971) 1984. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar
PEPITONE, Albert (1975) “Social Psychological Perspectives on Crime and Punishment,” 31 Journal of Social Issues 197.Google Scholar
PERISTIANY, Jean (ed.) (1966) Honor and Shame. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
PIAGET, Jean (1948) The Moral Judgment of the Child. New York: Macmillan.Google Scholar
PINCOFFS, Edmund (1966) The Rationale of Legal Punishment. New York: Humanities Press.Google Scholar
PODGORECKI, Adam, Wolfgang, KAUPEN, J. VAN, HOUTTE, P., VINKE and B., KUTCHINSKY (1973) Knowledge and Opinion about Law. London: Martin Robertson.Google Scholar
RADIN, Max (1936) “Enemies of Society,” 27 Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 328.Google Scholar
RANULF, Svend (1964) Moral Indignation and Middle Class Psychology. New York: Schocken Books.Google Scholar
ROBERTS, Alan and Richard, JESSOR (1958) “Authoritarianism, Punitiveness, and Perceived Social Status,” 56 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 311.Google Scholar
ROSE, Arnold and Arthur, PRELL (1955) “Does the Punishment Fit the Crime? A Study in Social Valuation,” 61 American Journal of Sociology 247.Google Scholar
ROSSI, Peter, Emily, WAITE, Christine, BOSE and Richard, BERK (1974) “The Seriousness of Crimes: Normative Structure and Individual Differences,” 39 American Sociological Review 224.Google Scholar
ROTHBART, Myron (1968) “Effects of Motivation, Equity, and Compliance on the Use of Reward and Punishment,” 9 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 353.Google Scholar
RULE, Brendan and Andrew, NESDALE (1976) “Moral Judgment of Aggressive Behavior,” in Geen, R. and O'Neal, E. (eds.) Perspectives on Aggression. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar
RUSCHE, Georg and Otto, KIRCHHEIMER (1939) Punishment and Social Structure. New York: Columbia University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
SALES, Stephen (1972) “Economic Threat as a Determinant of Conversion Rates in Authoritarian and Nonauthoritarian Churches,” 23 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 420.Google Scholar
SALES, Stephen (1973) “Threat as a Factor in Authoritarianism: An Analysis of Archival Data,” 28 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44.Google Scholar
SALES, Stephen and Kenneth, FRIEND (1973) “Success and Failure as Determinants of Level of Authoritarianism,” 18 Behavioral Science 163.Google Scholar
SARAT, Austin (1977) “Studying American Legal Culture: An Assessment of Survey Evidence,” 11 Law & Society Review 427.Google Scholar
SARAT, Austin and Neil, VIDMAR (1976) “Public Opinion, the Death Penalty, and the Eighth Amendment: Testing the Marshall Hypothesis,” 1976 Wisconsin Law Review 171.Google Scholar
SAVITSKY, Jeffrey and J., BABEL (1976) “Cheating, Intention and Punishment from an Equity Theory Perspective,” 10 Journal of Research in Personality 128.Google Scholar
SCHELER, Max (1961) Ressentiment. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
SCHNEIDER, David (1976) Social Psychology. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
SCHNEIDER, Frank and Marvin, SHAW (1970) “Sanctioning Behavior in Negro and in White Populations,” 81 Journal of Social Psychology 63.Google Scholar
SCHULHOFER, Stephen (1974) “Harm and Punishment: A Critique of Emphasis on the Results of Conduct in the Criminal Law,” 122 University of Pennsylvania Law Review 1497.Google Scholar
SCHWARTZ, Richard (1974) “Legal Evolution and the Dürkheim Hypothesis: A Reply to Professor Baxi,” 8 Law & Society Review 653.Google Scholar
SCHWARTZ, Richard (1979) “The Supreme Court and Capital Punishment: A Quest for Balance between Legal and Societal Morality,” 1 Law & Policy Quarterly 285.Google Scholar
SCHWARTZ, Richard and James, MILLER (1964) “Legal Evolution and Societal Complexity,” 70 American Journal of Sociology 159.Google Scholar
SEGERSTEDT, Torgny (1949) “Research into the General Sense of Justice,” 15 Theoria 323.Google Scholar
SHARP, F. and M., OTTO (1910a) “A Study of the Popular Attitude toward Retributive Punishment,” 20 International Journal of Ethics 341.Google Scholar
SHARP, F. (1910b) “Retribution and Deterrence in the Moral Judgments of Common Sense,” 20 International Journal of Ethics 438.Google Scholar
SHAVER, Kelley (1970) “Defensive Attribution: Effects of Severity and Relevance on the Responsibility Assigned for an Accident,” 14 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 101.Google Scholar
SHAW, Marvin (1967) “Some Cultural Differences in Sanctioning Behavior,” 8 Psychonomic Science 45.Google Scholar
SHAW, Marvin and Harold, REITAN (1969) “Attribution of Responsibility as a Basis for Sanctioning Behavior,” 8 British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 217.Google Scholar
SHAW, Marvin and Frank, SCHNEIDER (1969) “Intellectual Competence as a Variable in Attribution of Responsibility and Assignment of Sanctions,” 78 Journal of Social Psychology 31.Google Scholar
SHAW, Marvin and Jefferson, SULZER (1964) “An Empirical Test of Heider's Levels in Attribution of Responsibility,” 69 Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 39.Google Scholar
SHERWOOD, John (1966) “Authoritarianism, Moral Realism and President Kennedy's Death,” 5 British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 264.Google Scholar
SINGER, Barry (1970) “Psychological Studies of Punishment,” 58 California Law Review 405.Google Scholar
SOLZHENITSYN, Alexander (1974) The Gulag Archipelago: 1918-1956. New York: Harper and Row.Google Scholar
SOROKIN, Pitirim (1937) Social and Cultural Dynamics: Volume 2: Fluctuation of Systems of Truth, Ethics, and Law. New York: American Book Company.Google Scholar
SPITZER, Steven (1975) “Punishment and Social Organization: A Study of Durkheim's Theory of Penal Evolution,” 9 Law & Society Review 613.Google Scholar
SUEDFELD, Peter and Yakov, EPSTEIN (1973) “Attitudes, Values and Ascription of Responsibility: The Calley Case,” 29 Journal of Social Issues 63.Google Scholar
SYKES, Gresham and David, MATZA (1957) “Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency,” 22 American Sociological Review 664.Google Scholar
THIBAUT, John and Harold, KELLEY (1958) The Social Psychology of Groups. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles (1977) “Eighth Amendment Challenges to the Death Penalty: The Relevance of Informed Public Opinion,” 30 Vanderbilt Law Review 1005.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles and Robin, CAGE (1976) “Correlates of Public Attitudes toward Legal Sanctions,” 4 International Journal of Criminology and Penology 239.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles, Robin, CAGE and Samuel, FOSTER (1976) “Public Opinion on Criminal Law and Legal Sanctions: An Examination of Two Conceptual Models,” 67 Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 110.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles and Samuel, FOSTER (1975) “A Sociological Perspective on Public Support for Capital Punishment,” 45 Journal of Orthopsychiatry 641.Google Scholar
THOMAS, Charles and Robert, HOWARD (1977) “Public Attitudes toward Capital Punishment: A Comparative Analysis,” 6 Journal of Behavioral Economics 189.Google Scholar
THOMAS, W. and Florian, ZNANIECKI (1943) The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
TRIVERS, Robert (1971) “The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism,” 46 Quarterly Review of Biology 35.Google Scholar
VELTFORT, Helene and George, LEE (1943) “The Cocoanut Grove Fire: A Study in Scapegoating,” 38 Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 138.Google Scholar
VEDMAR, Neil (1972) “Effects of Decision Alternatives on the Verdicts and Social Perceptions of Simulated Jurors,” 22 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 211.Google Scholar
VEDMAR, Neil (1974) “Retributive and Utilitarian Motives and Other Correlates of Canadian Attitudes toward the Death Penalty,” 15 Canadian Psychologist 337.Google Scholar
VEDMAR, Neil (1977) “Effects of Degree of Harm and Retribution Motives on Punishment Reactions.” Presented at the Canadian Psychological Association, Vancouver, B.C. (June).Google Scholar
VEDMAR, Neil (1978) “Outcome, Offense Type, and Retribution as Factors in Punishment Reactions.” Presented at the Eastern Psychological Association, Washington, D.C. (April).Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil and Linda, CRINKLAW (1973) “Retribution and Utility as Motives in Sanctioning Behavior.” Presented at the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago (May).Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil (1974) “Attributing Responsibility for an Accident: A Methodological and Conceptual Critique,” 6 Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science 112.Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil and Anthony, DITTENHOFFER (1979) “Public Opinion and the Death Penalty: The Effects of Knowledge on Attitudes” [Unpublished Manuscript].Google Scholar
VIDMAR, Neil and Phoebe, ELLSWORTH (1974) “Public Opinion and the Death Penalty,” 26 Stanford Law Review 1245.Google Scholar
VON HIRSCH, Andrew (1976) Doing Justice. New York: Hill and Wang.Google Scholar
WALKER, Nigel (1966) The Aims of a Penal System. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar
WALSTER, Elaine (1966) “Assignment of Responsibility for an Accident,” 3 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73.Google Scholar
WALSTER, Elaine, G., WALSTER and Ellen, BERSCHEID (1978) Equity, Theory and Research. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.Google Scholar
WEIHOFEN, Henry (1957) The Urge to Punish. London: Gollancz.Google Scholar
WESTERMARCK, Edward (1932) Ethical Relativity. New York: Harcourt Brace.Google Scholar
WHEELER, Stanton, Edna, BONACICH, M. Richard, CRAMER and Irving, ZOLA (1968) “Agents of Delinquency Control: A Comparative Analysis,” in Wheeler, S. (ed.) Controlling Delinquents. New York: John Wiley.Google Scholar
WHITING, John and Beatrice, WHITING (1960) “Contributions of Anthropology to the Methods of Studying Child Rearing,” in Mussen, P. (ed.) Handbook of Research Methods in Child Development. New York: Wiley.Google Scholar
WORTMAN, Camille (1976) “Causal Attributions and Personal Control,” in Harvey, J., Ickes, W. and Kidd, R. (eds.) New Directions in Attribution Research. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.Google Scholar
ZIMRING, Franklin and Gordon, HAWKINS (1973) Deterrence: The Legal Threat in Crime Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar