1 This article shall use the term ‘nuclear weapon states’ loosely, to refer both to the nuclear weapons states that are parties to the 1968 Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons as well as the de facto nuclear weapon states (those known, or widely believed, to be possessing nuclear weapons).

2 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996, [1996] ICJ Rep. 226, at 541 (Judge Weeramantry, Dissenting Opinion).

3 Ministry of National Defense (China), Press Release, ‘China’s Military Strategy’, 26 May 2015, available at eng.mod.gov.cn/Press/2015-05/26/content_4586805.htm.

4 Heginbotham, E. et al., China’s Evolving Nuclear Deterrent: Major Drivers and Issues for the United States (2017), at 17CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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8 Chinese Academy of Military Sciences, supra note 6, at 19.

9 R. Kazi, ‘Article No 2361 Pakistan’s Nuclear Doctrine and Strategy’, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, 23 August 2007, available at www.ipcs.org/comm_select.php?articleNo=2361.

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14 K. Gannon, ‘Pakistan Warns India of Retaliation’, AP NEWS, 28 May 1998, available at www.apnews.com/8865892b258367a976e9004d5c4fd605; President General Pervez Musharraf (Pakistan), President Address to the Nation, BBC, 27 May 2002, available at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/monitoring/media_reports/2011509.stm.

15 US Department of Defense, Nuclear Posture Review Report, February 2018, available at media.defense.gov/2018/Feb/02/2001872886/-1/-1/1/2018-NUCLEAR-POSTURE-REVIEW-FINAL-REPORT.PDF.

16 Ibid., at 20.

17 Ibid., at 21.

18 Ibid., at 20.

19 Ibid., at 54.

20 US Department of Defense, Summary of the 2018 National Defense Strategy of the United States of America, January 2018, available at dod.defense.gov/Portals/1/Documents/pubs/2018-National-Defense-Strategy-Summary.pdf.

21 US Department of Defense, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, December 2017, available at www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/NSS-Final-12-18-2017-0905.pdf.

22 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation, Comment by the Information and Press Department on the new US Nuclear Posture Review, 3 February 2018, available at www.mid.ru/en/diverse/-/asset_publisher/zwI2FuDbhJx9/content/kommentarij-departamenta-informacii-i-pecati-mid-rossii-v-svazi-s-publikaciej-novoj-adernoj-doktriny-ssa.

23 R. Merrick, ‘Theresa May Would Fire UK’s Nuclear Weapons as a “First Strike”, says Defence Secretary Michael Fallon’, Independent, 24 April 2017, available at www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/theresa-may-nuclear-weapons-first-strike-michael-fallon-general-election-jeremy-corbyn-trident-a7698621.html.

24 Prime Minister’s Office (UK), National Security Strategy and Strategic Defence and Security Review, November 2015, para. 4.68, available at assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/478933/52309_Cm_9161_NSS_SD_Review_web_only.pdf.

25 Ibid.

26 Ibid., para. 4.69.

27 de Champchesnel, T., ‘The United States, France, and Nuclear Deterrence post NPR’, European Leadership Network, 19 March 2018, available at www.europeanleadershipnetwork.org/commentary/the-united-states-france-and-nuclear-deterrence-post-npr/Google Scholar.

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29 Ministry of the Armed Forces (France), French White Paper on Defence and National Security, 2013, at 127, available at www.defense.gouv.fr/.../White%20paper%20on%20defense%20%202013.pdf.

30 Ibid.

31 ‘France “Would Use Nuclear Arms”’, BBC, 19 January 2006, available at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4627862.stm.

32 Ministry of the Armed Forces (France), Strategic Review, supra note 28, at 52.

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34 US Department of Defense, Nuclear Posture Review Report, supra note 15; Prime Minister’s Office (UK), National Security Strategy 2015, supra note 24, para. 3.20.

35 European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, ‘Russia’s National Security Strategy and Military Doctrine and Their Implications for the EU’, January 2017, at 15, available at www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2017/578016/EXPO_IDA%282017%29578016_EN.pdf.

36 ‘Russia to Broaden Nuclear Strike Options’, RT, 14 October 2009, available at www.rt.com/news/russia-broaden-nuclear-strike/.

37 Sokov, N.N., ‘Why Russia calls its limited nuclear strike “de-escalation”’, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 13 March 2014, available at thebulletin.org/2014/03/why-russia-calls-a-limited-nuclear-strike-de-escalation/Google Scholar.

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39 President of the Russian Federation, Presidential Address to the Russian Federal Assembly, 1 March 2008, available at en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/56957.

40 K. Ven Bruusgaard, ‘The Myth of Russia’s Lowered Nuclear Threshold’, War on the Rocks, 22 September 2017, available at warontherocks.com/2017/09/the-myth-of-russias-lowered-nuclear-threshold/.

41 President of the Russian Federation, Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation, 2014, para. 27, available at www.offiziere.ch/wp-content/uploads-001/2015/08/Russia-s-2014-Military-Doctrine.pdf.

42 O. Oliker and A. Baklitskiy, ‘The Nuclear Posture Review and Russian “de-escalation” – A Dangerous solution to a non-existent problem’, War on the Rocks, 20 February 2018, available at warontherocks.com/2018/02/nuclear-posture-review-russian-de-escalation-dangerous-solution-nonexistent-problem/.

43 M. Kofman, ‘What Actually Happened During Zapad 2017’, ERR News, 23 December 2017, available at news.err.ee/650543/michael-kofman-what-actually-happened-during-zapad-2017.

44 O. Oliker, ‘Russia’s Nuclear Doctrine – What we know, what we don’t, and what that means?’, Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2 May 2016, available at www.csis.org/analysis/russia%E2%80%99s-nuclear-doctrine.

45 President of the Russian Federation, Presidential Address, supra note 39.

46 M. Kroenig, ‘The Renewed Russian Nuclear Threat and NATO Nuclear Deterrence Posture’, Atlantic Council, 1 February 2016, at 2, available at www.jstor.org/stable/resrep03450?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents; Oliker, supra note 44.

47 S. Loiko, ‘Russia Says It Has a Right to Put Nuclear Weapons in Crimea’, Los Angeles Times, 15 September 2014, available at www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-russia-nuclear-crimea-20141215-story.html; B. Waterfield, ‘Russia Threatens NATO with Military Strikes over Missile Defence System’, Telegraph, 3 May 2012, available at www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/9243954/Russia-threatens-Nato-with-military-strikes-over-missile-defence-system.html.

48 S. Smith, ‘North Korea’s Evolving Nuclear Strategy’, US-Korea Institute at SAIS, August 2015, available at www.38north.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/NKNF_Evolving-Nuclear-Strategy_Smith.pdf.

49 ‘Law on Consolidating Position of Nuclear Weapons State Adopted’, Korean Central News Agency, 1 April 2013, available at kcnawatch.co/newstream/1451896124-739013370/law-on-consolidating-position-of-nuclear-weapons-state-adopted/.

50 White House, Joint Statement of President Donald J. Trump of the United States of America and Chairman Kim Jong Un of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea at the Singapore Summit, 12 June 2018, available at www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/joint-statement-president-donald-j-trump-united-states-america-chairman-kim-jong-un-democratic-peoples-republic-korea-singapore-summit/.

51 B. Barrett, ‘All the Times North Korea Promised to Denuclearize’, Wired.com, 12 June 2018, available at www.wired.com/story/north-korea-summit-denuclearize-history/.

52 UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council, UN Doc. S/PRST/2009/7, available at undocs.org/S/PRST/2009/7.

53 ‘North Korea Conducts Nuclear Test’, BBC, 25 May 2009, available at news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8066615.stm.

54 A. Quinn, ‘North Korea Agrees to Nuclear Moratorium’, Reuters, 29 February 2012, available at www.reuters.com/article/us-korea-north-usa-talks/north-korea-agrees-to-nuclear-moratorium-iaea-inspections-idUSTRE81S13R20120229.

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56 J. Borger, ‘North Korea Accuses US of “Gangster-Like” Behavior After Pompeo Talks’, Guardian, 8 July 2018, available at www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jul/07/north-korea-calls-us-denuclearisation-talks-regrettable.

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59 Prime Minister’s Office (India), Press Release, Cabinet Committee on Security Reviews Progress in Operationalizing India’s Nuclear Doctrine, 4 January 2003, available at www.mea.gov.in/press-releases.htm?dtl/20131/The+Cabinet+Committee.

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78 Ibid., at 244, para. 39.

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93 Prime Minister’s Office (India), 2003 Nuclear Doctrine, supra note 59, para. III.

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96 Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion (Vice-President Schwebel, Dissenting Opinion), supra note 77, para. 90.

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108 See Roscini, supra note 84, at 242, observing that ‘the Greek Prime Minister’s declaration of 27 March 1987 according to which the Greek armed forces could “teach the Turks a very hard lesson” if Turkey continued with her “aggressive acts” assumed a threatening character if seen in the context of the escalation of the crisis in the Aegean Sea’ (emphasis added).

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117 Nuclear Weapons Advisory Opinion, supra note 77, at 246–7, paras. 47–9.

118 Sadurska, supra note 91, at 267.

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129 Prime Minister’s Office (India), 2003 Nuclear Doctrine, supra note 59, para. III.

130 Saran, supra note 95, at 16.

131 Ibid., at 7.

132 Gray, supra note 75, at 150; Cheng, B., General Principles of Law as Applied by International Courts and Tribunals (1953), 95Google Scholar; Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaragua v. United States of America), Merits, Judgment of June 27 1986, [1996] ICJ Rep. 14, at 363 (Judge Schwebel, Dissenting Opinion).

133 Green, J., The International Court of Justice and Self-Defence in International Law (2009), 84Google Scholar; Dinstein, supra note 127, at 262.

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137 Panda, supra note 105.

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142 Ghoshal, supra note 97, at 161.

143 Kristensen and Norris, Federation of American Scientists, supra note 73, noting that none of India’s nuclear weapons are presently deployed.

144 Rajagopalan, supra note 128, at 102.

145 Green, supra note 133, at 27.

146 Bowett, supra note 140.

147 Green, supra note 133, at 35.

148 Prime Minister’s Office (India), 2003 Nuclear Doctrine, supra note 59, para. III.

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