Materials have been central to the development of civilization, as they constitute thebackbone of our society and of our technology, as all things are made of materials and allof them are made by tools mainly made of metals, and especially iron and steel. In modernlanguage, they have become central to the sustainability of our society. Speaking about ormeasuring this relationship, however, is complex. Life Cycle Thinking is an important toolfor doing this, but it was not developed with materials in mind and it focuses only onthat small part of sustainability related to environmental impacts. Economic and societalissues require other methodologies and all these complementary visions have to beaggregated in order to report properly on sustainability matters. To advance towards sucha new tool, called the New Metrics, an Initiative called SOVAMAT was launched 10 years agoand a Community has shaped up, binging together academics from a broad array of hard andsoft disciplines, materials producers from metals to plastics, glass, paper/cardboard,concrete, carbons, wood, etc., and materials users, including meta-users who work onecodesign, for example. The agenda of the Initiative is moving forward, improving existingmethodology, extending it and aggregating various tools towards the final target of theNew Metrics. The SOVAMAT Community meets regularly in annual seminars called Society andMaterials or SAM. This paper explains the questions addressed by the Initiative and someof its early successes.

The operation of an economy is supported by the stock of materials in the form of durables and infrastructure such as machinery, equipment, buildings, and structures. The amount of durables and infrastructure or “capital stock” in the economy is of great interest in the literature of economics, and is usually measured in monetary terms based on the data on capital expenditure. In spite of its wide use by economists, this measure of “capital stock” is of very limited use for sustainable management of material stock because of its neglect of physical properties such as the mass and material composition. This paper proposes a new method of measuring the stock of long-lived durables and infrastructure in terms of the mass of its materials. This method is based on the WIO-MFA method [S. Nakamura et al. J. Ind. Ecol. 11 (2007) 50-63] and the capital formation matrix that is one of the supplementary tables of the input-output table. The method is applied to the Japanese input-output data with 400 sectors, with 9 types of metals (iron, ferroalloy, copper, zinc, lead, tin, aluminum, silver, and gold) and 8 types of plastics (thermo-setting resins, PE (low), PE (high), PS, PP, PVC, high-performance resins, and other resins) occurring as materials. It was found that substantial variations exist among sectors while fixed capital formation in the year 2000 weighs 518 kg per million Japanese yen on average in metals and plastics.

In this presentation, the development of a simulation model that can examine thelong-term strategy of materials industries, called a material strategy model, is proposed.This model has the following structure: first, the world is divided into a number of areasand a scenario for the demand for end products in the future in each area is provided.Then, the system required to realize the scenario and to minimize CO2 emissionor the total cost is calculated using this model. In other words, the optimization toselect processes in society to minimize total CO2 emission or total cost iscarried out. As a result, the possibility of the long-term scenario; for example, theamount of car production based on population increase and GDP growth, can be discussed byconsidering CO2 emission and consumption of resources. A few simulation modelsto discuss long-term strategy have been developed in the field of energy system studies.In the energy system model, only a few resources such as coal, oil, natural gas anduranium are considered, but, in the material strategy model, it is necessary to examinemany materials and resources. In addition, the material strategy model should have anenergy model as one part of the model. As a first step, a prototype model mainly focusingon iron and steel with their alloys should be developed to show the capability to developthe whole model.

The impact of the use of particular materials on the environment and society can beassessed in a number of ways, including through the impact on natural resources,contribution to environmental burden and effects on the quality of human life. In thiscontext, indicators such as embodied energy, exergy, TMR (total material requirement),ecological footprint, social indicators (such as effects on human health) and LCA based onthese indicators, are available. We apply the concept of energy networks 1 (quoted in Appendix O), to explore the differences inenergy network impact due to processes for the production of various materials, each timewith an equivalent end-use in mind. The inventory analysis part of LCA has been carriedout on materials, as well as some work on impact assessment (LCIA) for resource use,pollution severity and health impact. The indicators proposed here aid the assessment ofthe energy system impact, particularly with regards to opportunity costs to society,impact on equity in society and the administrative burden on society due to the currentenergy networks. The indicators are: embodied energy, the maximum process temperature, theannual use energy, and network reliance. Three case studies are employed to explore theusefulness of the indicators, including a beverage container, a house window frame and abeverage bottle transport crate. These case studies show that for a particular end use,different materials can have wide differences in the proportion of energy sourced fromenergy networks (a factor of 95 observed in one case). The indicators also offer a quickerindication than life cycle assessment and allow deduction of impacts on a wider socialsystem. The indicators have the potential to change material development and processdesign trends towards processes which are less burdensome on energy networks.

The carbon footprint is allocated today to CO2 emission sources, and thus to industries with smokestacks, machines with tailpipes or countries burning coal and oil; emission factors are also calculated, i.e. emissions per unit of production, of use, per capita or per unit of GDP. This is, however, not the only way to allocate emissions in a value chain and this could also be done at the source (cradle) of the carbon that will later end up being oxidized. Comparing countries with this new metrics points to fossil fuel producers as the major “cradle producers” of CO2, thus giving a fairly different geopolitical view of the “polluting” world. Beyond issues of responsibilities, related to the polluter pays principle, this new method can help exhibit solutions for mitigating emissions that usually are not imagined or discussed, and examples thereof are given.

As the global economy grows and evolves in the 21st century emerging technologies will require mineral commodities on a greater scale and in a larger number of applications than ever before. The explosive growth in the economies of other nations and the concomitant and explosive increase in demand for raw materials are the reasons for potential supply restrictions. The portfolio of minerals and metals needed for manufacturing is dynamic. If the supply of any of the raw materials used in everyday products and in new emerging technologies was curtailed, many high-tech sectors of the European industries could be significantly affected. For example, the so called “tuning metals” or “spice metals”, although used only in small and essentially as “functional alloyings” in conventional metals are indispensable as “power amplifier” of modern materials used in vehicle construction. These materials are in principle recyclable. However, in most cases it is impossible to recycle them because of the minor concentration in application, thus they are being “consumed”. The Faculty of Georesources and Materials Engineering of RWTH Aachen University is initiating thereupon an integrated interdisciplinary research. The three divisions of the faculty, i.e. Raw Materials and Waste Disposal Technology, Metallurgy and Materials Technology as well as Geosciences and Geography, collaborate on the issue of sustaining critical raw materials availability so that the supply of materials needed for futures industries can be guaranteed. Objective of this research cooperation is to develop life-cycle strategies for critical raw materials which are fundamental for emerging technologies. Securing the availability of raw materials may be accomplished by improving the efficiency of the raw materials chain and by enhancing the raw materials base. Increasing also the knowledge base in this field will enable the European society to transfer more resources into economically efficient and technically manageable as well as politically and socially acceptable mineral and metal reserves. Assuring a sustainable availability of critical metals will be of paramount importance for technical innovations. Researchers and scientists from the Faculty of Humanities at RWTH Aachen University are also involved to study the relation between raw materials supply and economic as well as social matters. Mapping out sustainable strategies for securing the supply of raw materials in the long run requires the competence and input of scientists in fields of natural, engineering, political, economical, and social sciences. Demand and supply of raw materials are affected by the economy, whereas global political and social issues have impact on the same economy.

In recent years, lithium received increasing attention as lithium-ion rechargeablebatteries appear to be the most promising candidates for future electric vehicles. Severalstudies forecast a strong increase in demand most likely brought about with theimplementation of lithium-ion batteries in the automotive sector. Thus, the availabilityof lithium could be an important constraint for this emerging technology. Concerninglithium availability the future developments of supply and demand as well as the recyclingpotential play major roles. In respect of recycling it has to be distinguished in generalbetween dissipative and non-dissipative applications. As several studies (e.g. 1 G. Angerer, F. Marscheider-Weidemann, M. Wendl, M.Wietschel, Raw materials for emerging technologies: the case of lithium, Karlsuhe 2009)predict lithium recycling to play an important role for future lithium availability therecyclability of lithium in different applications has to be analysed for estimating thecontribution of lithium recycling to future supply.

When introducing a new control paradigm in industry or society one has to accept that it is an evolutionary process where people, methods and processes must develop simultaneously, and this takes time. The recycling of material has been studied intensely for the last ten years using different approaches to material flow analyses, MFAs. They have given a good view of the magnitude of material flows but their use has been limited by lack of relevant data. In the case of recycling, data must be acquired from the practitioners of the trade and in order to get it, the value of the output for them and for society must be proved and visualized. This paper is based on a MFA model developed at KTH for steel flows in Sweden (part of the Swedish environmental research program, the “Steel-Eco-Cycle”). The aim of the work reported on here was to initiate the process of motivating better sampling of data in industry and society for performing MFAs. The KTH model is based on a product-to-product approach for steel, describing the recycling machine. Data is presented in a simplified model for Sweden with total figures and figures per capita. Areas where improvements can be made are identified and ways to “lubricate” the recycling machine are discussed. The main idea is to provide a way of describing flows that can be of use to recyclers and steel producers and form a basis for discussions on improvements. Finally, the underlying model is briefly described and the uncertainties of data are discussed.

The German metal industry is confronted with an enforcing international competition,rising prices of energy and commodities, the increasing relevance of sustainable economy,political demands and incentives such as emission trading. To meet these challenges it isessential for companies to further improve resource and energy efficiency and to reduceCO2 emissions. Usually, efforts concerning these objectives focus on new orimproved single processes. In contrast, the presented approach extends the considerationsto the inter-company perspective and considers multiple processes from ferrous andnon-ferrous metals industry which are linked by material flows. Our considerations focuson residue flows in the iron and steel as well as the zinc industry. Steel production inintegrated steelworks or electric steel plants involves the formation of large amounts ofby-products, e.g. dusts, sludges or slags. These contain valuable substances such as ironor zinc and can be further processed by internal re-feeding or external recycling, e.g. byspecialized companies, particularly Waelz kiln plants or the DK process. The latterproduce zinc concentrates for the zinc industry. Changes in the modes of operation of oneor more process can therefore affect the connected processes. We investigate strategies tofurther reduce landfilling and to efficiently allocate by-products to internal andexternal recycling options within the scope of the sketched network. We develop flowsheetmodels for representative processes within the regarded industries in Germany. With anElectric Arc Furnace (EAF), an integrated steelworks, two recycling companies, and ahydrometallurgical zinc plant the major processes of the German iron, steel and zincindustries are considered. We derive linear input-output functions for each of theprocesses by means of multiple linear regression analysis which we apply on results ofsystematically varied flowsheet simulation runs. These functions are used in a system oflinear equations, forming a material and energy flow model of the regarded network. Themodel is applied to identify and assess strategies and measures to enhance resource andenergy efficiency and to reduce climate relevant CO2 emissions by scenario andsensitivity analyses. Thus, technical and economical barriers of inter-company measurescan be overcome by identifying strategies which are technologically feasible and favorablewith regard to the named objectives.

For advanced high strength steels for automotive application, the time between materials development and regular use in cars, trucks and similar vehicles is rather short. In contradiction to this, hot rolled plates made of high strength low alloy steels which have been developed many years ago still do not find application fields in structural steelwork although they offer impressive mechanical properties. In this paper we argue that inadequate design rules in civil and mechanical engineering prevent such modern high strength steels from displaying their lightweight potential. A technological approach to the problem presented in this paper is to apply damage mechanics models together with probabilistic safety concepts for derivation of new improved safety factors. However, a major obstacle in this process is that these new safety factors will have to be included in the design standards. The development of such standards contains both institutional and epistemic obstacles to including alternative safety models. Taking standardization in Europe as an example, the standardization committee is characterized by both national interest representation and attempts to stimulate European integration and competitiveness. At the epistemic level, different understandings of what counts as evidence for material safety may challenge and postpone adoption of new calculative models. Institutionalization and epistemology thus contribute to a framework for standardization that needs to be questioned in order for new approaches to be accepted. Such questioning cannot be done on the basis of developing new calculation models alone, but needs a clear social component of building coalitions around the inclusion of new considerations, for example those related to sustainability.

Shipping containers have many names: cargo containers, sea cans, metal boxes, freightcontainers. Originally they were constructed, as the name reveals, “tocontain” and store items and mainly to transport goods. Freight containers are built tostrict international quality standards, to survive harsh treatment and a violent life inthe marine environment 1. The main technical detailsregarding containers were specified in an ISO (International Organization forStandardization) standard in January 1968 2. Thehistory of the shipping container starts like any other invention with a simple thought.It takes Malcom McLean, father of the shipping container, over 20 years to realize hisrevolutionary idea for the shipping industry and create a closed transport chain ofuniversal freight container for ships, trucks and trains 3. It wouldn’t be an exaggeration to say that shipping containers have laid thefoundation for globalization and changed the world. Over 95% of the worldwide tradeaffairs are winded up in containers. Today, international freight transportation is nolonger conceivable without containerization. There are approx. 28 million containerscirculating the globe. In the last couple of years up to 3 billion TEU (Twenty-footEquivalent Unit) shipping containers were produced annually, mainly in Asia 4. Most of the freight containers are made out ofCOR-TEN-Steel, which ensures strong carrying and loading capacity and supportswithstanding deformations or corrosion. Once they have served their purpose, shippingcontainers are being recycled as scrap. Another possibility is to be used in thearchitecture as spatial modules. A container’s life is ca.12 years and every year up to1.5 billion TEU are considered disused. The continued availability of shipping containersas a building block is thus assured. Therefore, the construction business with containershas a great potential regarding sustainability. In the last 15 years shipping containerconstruction has become popular for not only living spaces and homes, but for offices,studios, schools – the variety of uses is huge. Containers offer suitable solutions for awide range of uses. The increasing interest in these “icons of globalization” can beexplained with the fact, that they are relatively inexpensive, structurally sound and inabundant supply 6. Using old freight containerscould be seen as an environmental protection strategy and also as a redesign of technicalartefacts. Building with shipping containers is a new more affordable method ofconstruction and design. Due to metamorphose in functionality and meaning of containers –from a cargo box into a habitable space – we realize how big the technical range ofdiversity is. Technique reaches and changes the “Social” through design. The impreciseterm design, which has become a vogue term nowadays, is the interfacebetween technique, body, mind and communication 5.Designed objects are always also symbolic objects for different milieus; design has aneffect on awareness raising, thus on environmental awareness. An ongoing project at RWTHAachen University gives attention exactly to those disused shipping containers, theireventuality and boundary as environmental protection strategies in the living area, aswell as to the well-known cleavage between environmental awareness and environmentalbehaviour. The project focuses on the living situation in Germany and its potential forsuch new and innovative living concepts.