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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 February 2015
Using new archival materials, internal publications, and gazetteers as its sources, this article studies the conduct of disaster governance in Tianjin city during the Great Leap Forward famine from 1958–1962. The city was organizationally well able to implement disaster relief efforts, and early on it took a number of measures to control and mitigate the food crisis that began in the city in early 1959. However, Maoist campaign-based disaster management could not work well when other campaigns were prioritized in its stead. Lacking central sanction for a major disaster relief effort, city leaders resorted to strategies that prioritized its residents over suburban peasants and outsiders. The city actively sought resources from outside while trying to prevent their outward flows. The city's own production of vegetables must not be overlooked as one of the reasons for better survival rates among urban residents, but even this policy was hampered by other Great Leap Forward initiatives. In the case of Tianjin, urban disaster governance of the famine was inward-looking and, at the same time, constrained and reliant on the central government.
The writer wishes to thank the two anonymous reviewers of the article who helped to improve it. Moreover, he wishes to thank Professor Hou Jie, and Mr Zhao Tianlu and Ms Liu Wenhui for their vital assistance in archival research, which was made financially possible by funding from the Kone Foundation.
1 Also known as dropsy, oedema is an abnormal accumulation of fluid in the body, causing swelling and possibly heart or liver failure. It can be caused by, among other things, malnutrition.
2 Tianjin City Archives [hereafter TCA] X0196-C-001086-03 (22 January 1961). ‘Shiwei Jijianbu shenghuo bangongshi: guanyu jiaqiang dui fuzhongbingrende guangli, renzhen shixing shouzhong liaoyangde qingkuang jianbao’ [A Short Report by the City Party Committee Basic Construction Bureau's Livelihood Office on the Situation of Strengthening Oedema Patients’ Management and Seriously Focusing on Putting Recuperation into Practice].
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6 See, for example, Bramall, C. (2011). Agency and Famine in China's Sichuan Province 1958–1962, The China Quarterly, pp. 208Google Scholar, 990–1008; Chen, Y. (2011), ‘Under the Same Maoist Sky: Accounting for Death Rate Discrepancies in Anhui and Jiangxi’, in Manning, K. and Wemheuer, F.Eating Bitterness—New Perspectives on China's Great Leap Forward and Famine, UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 197–225Google Scholar.
7 Dikötter, F. (2010). Mao's Great Famine—The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958–62, Bloomsbury, LondonGoogle Scholar; Becker, J. (1996). Hungry Ghosts—China's Secret Famine, John Murray, LondonGoogle Scholar; Bernstein, T. P. (2006). Mao Zedong and the Famine of 1959–1960: A Study in Willfulness, The China Quarterly, 186, pp. 421–445CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Yang, J. (2009). Mubei—1958–1962 Zhongguo dajihuang jishi [Tombstone—a Comprehensive Account of the Great Chinese Famine during the Great Leap Forward], Tiandi tushu youxiangongsi, Hong KongGoogle Scholar; Teiwes, F. C. and Sun, W. (1999). China's Road to Disaster—Mao, Central Politicians, and Provincial Leaders in the Unfolding of the Great Leap Forward 1955–1959, M. E. Sharpe, LondonGoogle Scholar; Wemheuer, F. (2010). Dealing with Responsibility for the Great Leap Famine in the People's Republic of China, The China Quarterly, 201, pp. 176–194CrossRefGoogle Scholar; MacFarquhar, R. (1983). The Origins of the Cultural Revolution 2: The Great Leap Forward 1958–1960, Columbia University Press: New YorkGoogle Scholar; Basil, A., Hill, K., Piazza, A. and Zeitz, R. (1984). Famine in China 1958–61, Population and Development Review, 10:4, pp. 613–645Google Scholar.
8 See calculations of mortality rates in different localities in Peng, X. (1987). Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces, Population and Development Review, 13 (4), pp. 639–670CrossRefGoogle Scholar.
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10 Chen ‘Under the Same Maoist Sky’; there is also a chapter on children during the famine in Dikötter, Mao's Great Famine. See also Friedman, E., Pickowicz, P. G. and Selden, M. (1991). Chinese Village, Socialist State, Yale University Press, New HavenGoogle Scholar, on how people's closeness to the party-state influenced their chances of survival.
11 Chen, ‘Under the Same Maoist Sky’.
12 Bramall, Agency and Famine, pp. 990–1008.
13 Thaxton, R. A. Jr. (2008). Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China—Mao's Great Leap Forward and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village, Cambridge University Press, CambridgeGoogle Scholar; Thaxton, R. A. Jr. (2011). ‘How the Great Leap Forward Ended in Rural China: Administrative Intervention versus Peasant Resistance’, in Manning, and Wemheuer, Eating Bitterness, pp. 251–271Google Scholar.
14 Gao, H. (2011). ‘Food Augmentation Methods and Food Substitutes during the Great Famine’, in Manning and Wemheuer, Eating Bitterness, pp. 171–195Google Scholar.
15 Brown, J. (2011). ‘Great Leap City: Surviving the Famine in Tianjin’, in Manning and Wemheuer, Eating Bitterness, pp. 226–250Google Scholar; Brown, J. (2012). City Versus Countryside in Mao's China—Negotiating the Divide, Cambridge University Press, CambridgeCrossRefGoogle Scholar, Chapters 3 and 4.
16 The sources used in this study, generally speaking, fall into three categories: the archival materials from the Tianjin City Archive (TCA); the internal, or neibu (内部), publications; and open contemporary sources, especially the gazetteers of different administrative sections and units of the city. The first type provides mostly first-hand and detailed information on the events and disaster management policies of the era, and also contains sensitive information. However, even the archival sources are usually carefully worded, following political currents at the time of their writing and they most probably leave many things unsaid, especially on the real extent of the famine and food problems in the city and its countryside. Therefore one cannot regard this information as entirely reliable. The neibu publications also served propaganda purposes and therefore they have a clear tendency to report only positive achievements. They are, nevertheless, a good source on disaster management policies and regulations in general in the city. Gazetteers are less propagandist, but also usually sparse on details and circumspect on the negative aspects of the Leap. They are a good source for assessing the results of policies and their timings, but one needs to remember that, in general, statistical standards, particularly during the Leap, were messy and the accuracy of gazetteers based on such figures can therefore be questionable.
17 Tianjinshi siwu nian da shiji [The Record of 45 Years’ Major Events in Tianjin, hereafter TJSH45] (1995). Tianjinshi Renmin Chubanshe, Tianjin, pp. 148–150; Dangdai Zhongguode Tianjin [Contemporary China Tianjin, hereafter DDZGTJ] (1989). Zhongguo Shehuikexue chubanshe, Beijing, pp. 108–109; Tianjin lishi ziliao 14 (1957–1961) [Tianjin Historical Materials 14 1957–1961, hereafter TJZL 14] (1982). Tianjin waiguoyu xueyuan yinshua chang, Tianjin, p. 33; Dangdai Tianjin chengshi jianshi [City Construction in Contemporary Tianjin] (1987). Tianjin renmin chubanshe, Tianjin, pp. 249–250.
18 DDZGTJ, p. 112.
19 Tianjin tongzhi shangyezhi liangshijuan [The Grain Volume of the Tianjin Commerce Bureau Annals, hereafter LSJ] (1994). Tianjin shehuikexue xueyuan chuban, Tianjin, pp. 114 and 175.
20 TCA X0096-C-000026-012 (1 July 1959). ‘Tianjin Fushipinju: Tianjinshi 1959 nian baicai fangbing zengchan jishu cuoshi (cao’an)’ [Tianjin Supplementary Foodstuff Bureau: a Draft on Baicai Crop Disease Prevention Measures for the Year 1959].
21 Tianjin Zhengbao [Tianjin City Official Bulletin, hereafter TJZHB] no. 1 (5 January 1959). ‘Shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu diaozheng mianfen dapei gongying bizhongde tongzhi’ [City People's Committee Circular on Adjusting Flour Supply Proportions], p. 10.
22 TJZL 14, pp. 57–58; TJSH 45, p. 167.
23 LSJ, pp. 112–114.
24 Tianjin tongzhi zhengquan zhi zhengfu juan [Tianjin Annals Government Volume, hereafter TTZhQJ] (1996). Tianjin Shehuikexue chubanshe, Tianjin, p. 59.
25 TCA X0095-C-000754-048 (1 September 1959). ‘Tianjinshi liangshiju: guanyu zengchan-jieyue hongqi jingsai yundong kaizhan qingkuangde baogao’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Report on the Situation of Developing the Red Flag Competition Campaign to Increase and Economize Production].
26 TCA X0095-C-000754-048 (May 1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: Tianjinshi Hepingqu liangshi lingshou gongsi xianjin shiji’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau: Tianjin City Heping District Grain Retail Company's Advanced Achievements].
27 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Hexiqu Huiduijie zhengdun shiliang dingliang hou bian queliang wei yuliang’ [Hexi District Huidui Street Transforms Grain Shortages into Surpluses through Rectification], pp. 12–13.
28 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Tiangang yi chang ban hao shitang zhichi shengchan’ [Tianjin Steel Factory Number One Manages its Public Mess Halls Well to Support Production], pp. 13–14.
29 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Tiangang yi chang ban hao shitang zhichi shengchan’, p. 13.
30 LSJ, pp. 118–119.
31 TCA X0095-C-000754-048 (May 1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: Tianjinshi Hepingqu liangshi lingshou gongsi xianjin shiji’.
32 For example, TJZHB no. 21 (25 May 1959). ‘Bixun an zhi an liang zhonghao ganshu’ [Sweet Potatoes Must Be Planted Well Paying Attention to Quality and Quantity], pp. 3–5; TJZHB no. 25 (22 June 1959). ‘Yanshan Xian jiji kuoda ganshu zhongzhi mianji’ [Yanshan County Expands Vigorously its Sweet Potato Acreage], p. 8.
33 Friedman et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State, pp. 231–232 and 248–249.
34 TJZHB no. 14 (6 April 1959). ‘Yange zhi zhizhi nongcun laodongli mangmu wailiu’ [Observe Strictly Curbing the Blind In-migration of Peasant Labour Force], pp. 9–10.
35 TCA X0095-C-000754-04 (22 May1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: Hongqiaoqu liangshi lingshou gongsi xianjin shiji’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau: Hongqiao District Grain Retail Company's Advanced Achievements].
36 Gong-Shang xingzheng guanli zhi [Industry and Commerce Administration and Management Annals, hereafter GS] (2001). Tianjin Shehuikexue chubanshe, Tianjin, pp. 113 and 129–130; TJZHB no. 24 (16 June 1958). ‘Weihu shiliang tonggou-xiao zhengce, jiaqiang kongzhi shiliang wailiu’ [Uphold the Monopoly Procurement System Policy, Increase Curbing Foodstuff Outflows], pp. 13–14; TCA X0095-C-000754-048 (May 1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: Tianjinshi Hepingqu liangshi lingshou gongsi xianjin shiji’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau: Tianjin City Heping District Grain Retail Company's Advanced Achievements].
37 GS, pp. 127–128 and 131–133.
38 For example, TJZHB no. 45 (10 November 1958). ‘Ge danweide huoshituan bu yao zhijie xiang nongcun renmin gongshe lai gou shucai’ [Work Units’ Kitchen Staffs Are Not Allowed to Go Directly to People's Communes to Buy Vegetables], p. 9; TJZHB no. 7 (16 February 1959). ‘Shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu yanjin ge danwei zhijie xiang nongcun renmin gongshe lai gou shucai, zhurou, deng fushipinde tongzhi’ [Notice on the City People's Committee Strictly Prohibiting All Work Units from Going Directly to People's Communes to Buy Vegetables, Pork or Other Supplementary Foodstuff], p. 9.
39 Tianjin tongzhi wujiazhi [Tianjin Annals Price Volume, hereafter TJWJZh] (1997). Tianjin shehuikexueyuan chubanshe, Tianjin, pp. 26–27.
40 TJSH45, p. 167.
41 TJZHB no. 11 (16 March 1959). ‘Shi renwei fachu zhishi, fadong qunzhong zhongzhi bima, xianrikui zengchan youke’ [The City People's Committee Issues Instructions to Mobilise the Masses to Plant Castor-oil Plant and Sunflowers to Increase Oil Production], pp. 8–9.
42 TCA X0096-C-000026-012 (15 June 1959). ‘Song Jingyi fushizhang zai Tianjinshi zhaokaide qiucai chan-xiao huiyi shang suo zuode dahui baogao’ [Conference Report by City Vice-Mayor Song Jingyi at the Tianjin City Autumn Vegetable Production and Sales Conference].
43 TJSH45, pp. 173 and 180.
44 TCA X0095-C-000754-048 (1 September 1959). ‘Tianjinshi liangshiju: guanyu zengchan-jieyue hongqi jingsai yundong kaizhan qingkuangde baogao’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Report on the Situation of Developing the Red Flag Competition Campaign to Increase Production and Economizing].
45 TCA X0196-C-001086-037 (10 October 1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: guanyu di san jidu zengchan-jieyue hongqi jingsai yuandongde jianjie he di si jidu gongzuo anpai yijian’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Summary Report on the Red Flag Competition Campaign to Increase Production and Economizing during the Third Quarter and Opinion on Work Arrangements for the Fourth Quarter].
46 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Qiandezhuang tongheli jumin chengwei yong liang huzhuzu jihua yong liang, jieyue liangshi chengji xianzhu’ [Qiandezhuang Neighbourhood Establish Mutual Aid Team for Helping in Planned Use and Saving Grain, Achieves Notable Results], p. 14
47 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Shi renminweiyuanhui guanyu jixu kaizhan shehui jieyue yundongde baogao’ [Announcement from the City People's Committee on Continuing Developing the Social Economizing Movement], pp. 8–9.
48 TJZHB no. 36 (7 September 1959). ‘Shi renminweiyuanhui guanyu renzhen zuohao qiushou gongzuode zhishi’ [Instructions from the City People's Committee on Earnest and Good Conduct of Autumn Harvest Work], pp. 4–5.
49 TCA X0196-C-001086-037 (10 October 1959). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: guanyu di san jidu zengchan-jieyue hongqi jingsai yuandongde jianjie he di si jidu gongzuo anpai yijian’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Summary on the Red Flag Competition Campaign to Increase and Economizing Production during the Third Quarter and an Opinion on Work Arrangements for the Fourth Quarter].
50 LSJ, p. 147.
51 Tianjin tongzhi—Da shiji [Overall Annals of Tianjin, hereafter TJTZDS] (1995). Tianjin Shehuikexueyuan chubanshe, Tianjin, pp. 363–364; TTZHQJ, p. 59.
52 TJZHB no. 36 (7 September 1959). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjinshi weiyuanhui fachu tongzhi yange kongzhi zengjia xin renyuan’ [Tianjin City Party Committee Issues Instructions on Curbing Hiring New Personnel], p. 7.
53 Tianjin Tongzhi-Minzhengjuzhi [Tianjin City Annals Bureau of Civil Affairs Records, hereafter MZHJZH] (1995). Tianjin renmin chubanshe, Tianjin, p. 30.
54 MZHJZH, pp. 291–295.
55 Jianguo yilai zhongyao wenxian xuanbian vol. 11 [The Anthology of Important Documents since the Founding of the PRC, hereafter ZYWX] (4 July 1959). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang guanyu zai da-zhong chengshi fazhan fushipin shengchande zhishi (1)’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Instructions on Developing Supplementary Food Production in Big and Middle-sized Cities’ Suburban Districts (1)], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
56 TJZHB no. 45 (9 November 1959). ‘Jianjue shixian woshi fushipin quanmian zigeide fangzhen’ [Persist on Realizing the Policy of Comprehensive Self-Sufficiency of Supplementary Foodstuff Production in Our City], pp. 8–9.
57 ZYWX vol. 12 (4 December 1959). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang pizhuan Li Xiannian “Zai dierci quanguo da-zhong chengshi fushipin shengchan huiyi shangde zongjie fayin”’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Records on the Li Xiannian's Summary Statement during the Second Big and Middle-sized Cities Supplementary Food Production Meeting], http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
58 TJZHB No. 27 (July 1960). ‘Dagao jiguan, qiye, fushipin shengchan, wei xunsu shixian fushipin zigei er fendou’ [Do in a Big Way the System and Companies’ Supplementary Food Production, Strive for Realizing Quickly Self-Sufficiency in Supplementary Food Production], pp. 2–5.
59 TJWJZh, p. 27.
60 TJZL 14, p. 89.
61 LSJ, p. 229.
62 TJZHB no. 15 (11 April 1960). ‘Cong ge fangmian jiejue liangshide xiaofei’ [Economize Grain Consumption in All Possible Ways], pp. 11–12.
63 TJZHB no. 32 (8 August 1960). ‘Guanyu jin yibu kaizhande jieyue liangshi yundong de yijian’ [An Opinion on Advancing the Economizing Grain Consumption Movement Even Further], p. 5.
64 Xun, Z. (ed.) (2012). The Great Famine in China 1958–1962—a Documentary History, Yale University Press, New Haven, p. 11Google Scholar.
65 Brown, ‘Great Leap City’, p. 234.
66 TCA X0283-C-000868-069 (1 June 1959). ‘Tianjinshi renmin shenghuo duozhong jingji shengchan weiyuanhui guanyu nongcun qunzhong fasheng fuzhong ji zhiliao qingkuang xiang shiwei baogao’ [Tianjin City Committee for People's Livelihood and Many Types of Economic Construction Report to the City Party Committee on the Occurrence of Oedema in the Countryside and Curing It].
67 TCA X0053-C-001746-003 (7 March 1960). ‘Tianjinshi gonggong weishengju: guanyu noncun dangqian fuzhongbing qingkuang baogao 60 hao’ [Tianjin City Public Health Bureau Report no. 60 on the Current Oedema Situation in the Countryside].
68 Wang, H. (2001). ‘Wo yi wo xue jian jinmen’—mianhuai Wan Xiaotang tongzhi’ [I Donate My Blood to Tianjin—Cherishing the Memory of Comrade Wan Xiaotang], in Wan Xiaotang jinian wenji bianjizu [Collected Works Commemorating Wan Xiaotang], Tianjin renmin chubanshe, Tianjin, p. 124.
69 TCA X0003-Y-009036 (5 May 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei Fangbing lanshi bangongshi: quanyu jieshu fangbing lanshi bangongshi gongzuo baogao’ [Tianjin City Communist Party Committee Temporary Disease Prevention Office: Summary Report Closing down the Temporary Disease Prevention Office Work].
70 TJSH45, p. 184.
71 Gao, ‘Food Augmentation Methods’, p. 173.
72 Brown, ‘Great Leap City’, p. 236.
73 TCA X0095-Y-000753-038 (28 June 1960). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: guanyu 7 yuefen gongying anpaide tongzhi 487 hao’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Notice no. 487 on the Supply Allocation Arrangements for July].
74 ZYWX vol. 13 (7 September 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang guanyu yadi nongcun he chengshide kouliang biaozhunde zhishi’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Instructions on Cutting Back Grain Rations in the Countryside and Cities], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013]; TJSH45, pp. 187 and 189.
75 TJZL 14, pp. 102; LSJ, p. 234.
76 LSJ, p. 119; TJSH45, p. 186.
77 Tao, Z. (2001). ‘Xinxue he shengmin quan xiangei Dang—Wan Xiaotong tongzhide gaogui xiangsi he pinge’ [Giving Painstaking Effort and All One's Life to the Party—Comrade Wan Xiaotang's Noble Thoughts and Moral Character], in Wan Xiaotang jinian wenji bianjizu, pp. 170–171.
78 Li, D. (2001). ‘Shishi-qiushide mofan—huainian Wan Xiaotang tongzhi’, [Seeking Truth from the Facts—Cherishing the Memory of Comrade Wan Xiaotang], in Wan Xiaotang jinian wenji bianjizu, pp. 47–48.
79 ZYWX vol. 13 (10 August 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang guanyu quandang dongshou, daban nongye, daban liangshide zhishi’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Instructions on Starting Whole Party Action on Promoting Agriculture and Grain Production], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
80 TCA 401206800-X0085-Y-000055-016 (September 1960). ‘Hu Yunchang zai shiwei dahui shangde jianggao: guanyu Tianjinqu yasuo laingshi xiaoliang anpai renmin shenghuo deng jixiang gongzuode yijian’ [A Speech by Hu Yunchang at the City People's Committee's Meeting on Number of Items in Cutting Grain Rations and Arranging People's Livelihood the Tianjin Urban Districts].
81 MZHJZH, pp. 291–295.
82 TCA 401206800-X0085-Y-000055-016 (September 1960). ‘Hu Yunchang zai shiwei dahui shangde’; TJZL 14, p. 102; LSJ, p. 234.
83 TJZHB no. 40 (3 October 1960). ‘Shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu jinzhi cong nongcun, waidi diaoru renyuande tongzhi’ [Notice on the City People's Committee's Decision to Curb Personnel Transfers from the Countryside of Outside of the City], p. 2.
84 TJZL 14, p. 103.
85 TJZHB no. 37 (12 September 1960). ‘Guanyu jixu shenru guancheyi nongye wei jichude fangzhen quanmin daban nongye, daban liangshide yijian’ [An Opinion on Continuing Thoroughly Implementing the Basic Guidelines for the Whole Nation to Do Agriculture and Grain in a Big Way], pp. 3–4.
86 TJZHB no. 27, (4 July 1960). ‘Dagao liangshi fushengchanpin zonghe liyong, wei guojia chuangzao geng duode caifu er nuli’ [Do in a Big Way the Combined Use of Grain and Supplementary Products, Make Great Effort to Generate More Wealth for the State], pp. 8–10.
87 ZYWX vol. 13 (10 August 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang guanyu quandang dongshou, daban nongye, daban liangshide zhishi’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Instructions on Starting Whole Party Action on Promoting Agriculture and Grain Production], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
88 TJZHB no. 32 (8 August 1960). ‘Shirenweiyanhui bangongting guanyu shiji jiguan fushipin shengchan youguan wentide tongzhi’ [The City People's Committee Office Notice on Problems on Supplementary Foodstuff Production by City-level System Units], p. 6.
89 TCA X0196-C-001086-037 (27 March 1961). ‘Shiwei Daishipin bangongshi: Guanyu shinei daishipin shengchan qingkuang ji 3–6 yuefen anpai yijian’ [City People's Committee Ersatz Food Office: Opinion on Ersatz Food Production Situation and Arrangements for March–June].
90 Gao, ‘Food Augmentation Methods’.
91 TJZHB no. 32 (8 August 1960). ‘Quan Dang quan min dongyuan, tuji qiangzhong qiucai’ [Mobilise All Party and People to Rush Plant Autumn Vegetables], pp. 6–8.
92 Wan, X. (9 November 1960). ‘Geji dangwei mishu yao renzhen zhuahao qunzhong shenghuo’ [All Levels’ Party Committee Secretaries Must Seriously Take Care of the Masses’ Livelihood], in Wan Xiaotang jinian wenji bianjizu, pp. 274–276.
93 TJSH45, p. 188; TJZHB no. 32 (8 August 1960). ‘Quan Dang quan min dongyuan’.
94 LSJ, pp. 156 and 164.
95 Tianjinshi er shang jituan youxiangongsi: Ershangzhi [Annals of the Second Commercial Company, hereafter Ershangzhi] (2005). Tianjinshehuikexueyuan chubanshe, Tianjin, p. 20.
96 TJZHB no. 32 (8 August 1960). ‘Quan Dang quan min dongyuan’.
97 Wan, X. (9 November 1960). ‘Geji dangwei mishu yao renzhen zhuahao qunzhong shenghuo’, pp. 274–276.
98 TJZL 14, pp. 106–107; DDZGTJ, p. 123.
99 Tianjin weisheng daji (1280–1990) [Tianjin Public Health Records 1280–1990—Major Affairs] (1992). Tianjin weishengshi bianxiuweiyuanhui, Tianjin, pp. 62 and 68.
100 ZYWX vol. 13 (16 October 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang pizhuan quangguo caimao shiji huiyi ‘‘Guanyu jianjue zuohao qiu-dong liangshi gongzuode taolun jiyao’’’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Transmitted Minutes of the Whole China Finance and Trade Secretary Meeting on ‘Firmly Doing Well with the Autumn and Winter Grain Work’], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
101 TJSH45, p. 192; TJZL 14, p. 106.
102 DDZGTJ, p. 123.
103 TCA X0095-Y-000753-038 (20 December 1960). ‘Tianjinshi Liangshiju: guanyu 1961 nian 1 yuefen liangshi gongying pinzhong anpaide tongzhi 879 hao’ [Tianjin City Grain Bureau Notice no. 879 on Grain Supply Arrangements and Variety for January 1961].
104 TCA X0095-C-000793-016 (28 November 1960). ‘Tianjinshi Fushipinju tonggao’ [A Notice by the Tianjin City Supplementary Foodstuff Bureau].
105 TJZL 14, p. 108.
106 ZYWX vol. 13 (17 November 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong zhongyang guanyu liji zhuajin shiliang diaoyunde tongxun’ [The Party Centre of the Chinese Communist Party Notice on Immediately Grasping Firmly Grain Transport and Allocation Work], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013].
107 Tao, ‘Xinxue he shengmin quan xiangei Dang’, pp. 170–171.
108 TJZHB no. 45 (5 December 1960). ‘Guanyu jin dong ming chun kaizhan renmin weisheng baojian yundongde yijian’ [An Opinion on Developing this Winter and Springtime People's Hygiene and Health Campaign], p. 7.
109 TCA X0095-C-000793-016 (10 December 1960). ‘Tianjinshi fushipinju: dui fuzhongbing gongying qingkuang jianyao baogao’ [Tianjin City Supplementary Foodstuff Bureau Briefing Report on the Supply Situation for Oedema Patients]; TCA X0095-C-000793-016 (24 December 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei shenghuo bangongshi guanyu jiaqiang fuzhong huanzhe yingyang buzhu gongying gongzuode tongzhi 3 hao’ [Tianjin City Communist Party Committee Livelihood Office Notice no. 3 on Strengthening Supply Work of Nutrition Subsidies for Oedema Patients].
110 TJSH45, p. 195.
111 TCA X0196-c-001086-004 (14 April 1961). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjinshi weiyuanhui jiangshe weiyuanhui shenghuo bangongshi guanyu fangzhi fuzhong gongzuo zongjie he jinhou yijian’ [Tianjin City Party Committee's Construction Committee Livelihood Office's Opinion on Summarising the Experiences of Curing and Preventing Oedema and [Measures to Be Taken] Hereafter].
112 TCA X0095-C-000793-016 (24 December 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei shenghuo bangongshi guanyu jiaqiang fuzhong huanzhe’ [Tianjin City Communist Party Committee's Livelihood Office on Strengthening Oedema Patients.]
113 TCA X0196-C-001086-037 (18 January 1961). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei Jijianbu shenghuo bangongshi: guanyu fuzhong bingren shouti xiuyang shixing banfa’ [Tianjin City Communist Party Committee Basic Construction Livelihood Office on Oedema Patients Collective Recuperation Test Method].
114 TCA X0003-Y-008977 (19 December 1960). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei 420 hao: shiwei pizhuan shi weiju dangzu guanyu Cang Xian renkou simang qingkuang baogao’ [Tianjin City Communist Party Committee no. 420: City Party Committee Anointed and Commented Notice on the City Health Bureau Party Cell Report on Mortality Situation in Cang County].
115 TJZHB no. 45 (5 December 1960). ‘Shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu jianjue, zhizhi qingke, songli, song jinqi, he tingzhi xinjiang zhaodaisuode tongzhi’ [City People's Committee Circular on Firmly Curbing Giving Presents, Awarding Silk Banners and Building New Official Guesthouses], pp. 9–10.
116 TJZHB no. 1 (17 January 1961). ‘Shi renmin weiyuanhui pizhuan shi Gonganju, Liangshiju ‘‘Guanyu baowei quandang daban nongye, daban liangshi, jin yi bu jiaqiang hukou guanlide yijian’’ de tongzhi’ [The City People's Committee Anointing and Transmitting the City Public Security and Grain Bureaus’ Circular ‘An Opinion on Guaranteeing Whole Party Doing Agriculture and Staple Foods, Going Further with Hukou Controls’], pp. 2–5.
117 LSJ, pp. 114, 119 and 189; TJZL 14, p. 111.
118 TJSH45, p. 199.
119 Li, D., ‘Shishi-qiushide mofan—nianji Wan Xiaotang tongzhi’, p. 49.
120 TJZL 14, pp. 112–113.
121 TJZHB no. 1 (17 January 1961). ‘Shi renminweiyuanhui guanyu jiguan, tuanti, gong-kuang qiye, budui, xuexiao deng danwei ziyang shengzhu keyi zi zai zi shide tongzhi’ [The City People's Committee's Notice on Slaughtering and Eating Self-Raised Pigs in the System, Industrial and Mining Companies, Military Units, Schools and Other Work Units], p. 6.
122 TJTZDS, p. 376.
123 Tao, ‘Xinxue he shengmin quan xiangei Dang’, pp. 172–173.
124 Li, Z. (2001). ‘Ta shishi guanxin qunzhong—shenqie huainian Wan Xiaotang tongzhi’ [He Always Cared Deeply for the Masses—Heartfelt Cherishing the Memory of Comrade Wan Xiaotang], in Wan Xiaotang jinian wenji bianjizu, p. 40.
125 Friedman, et al., Chinese Village, Socialist State, pp. 259–260Google Scholar.
126 Li, ‘Ta shishi guanxin qunzhong’, pp. 39–40.
127 LSJ, p. 175.
128 TJZHB no. 3 (10 February 1962).‘Tianjinshi Cai-zheng-mao weiyuanhui guanyu dangqian shichang gongying he renmin shenghuo anpai qingkuangde baogao’ [Tianjin City Finance, Government and Commerce Committee's Report on the Situation with the Present Market Supplies and Arranging People's Livelihood], p. 8.
129 TJSH45, pp. 206–207; TJZL 14, p. 131.
130 ZYWX vol. 14 (16 June 1961). ‘Zhongyang gongzuo huiyi guanyu jianshao changzhen renkou he yasuo chengzhen shiliang xiaoliangde jiu tiao banfa’ [Party Centre Working Meeting's Nine Measures on Reducing Urban Population and Grain Sales Volume in Cities], The Database of the CPC, http://58.68.145.22/directLogin.do?target=cpc, [accessed 3 October 2013]; TJZL 14, pp. 121–123.
131 TJZL 14, p. 125.
132 TJSH45, p. 204.
133 LSJ, p. 114.
134 TJTZDS, p. 382.
135 Brown, Great Leap City, p. 246.
136 TJZHB no. 6 (31 March 1961). ‘Renzhen zhixing jinjiao nongye shengchan yi cai wei gangde fangzhi, xianqi chuncai shengchan gaochao’ [Earnestly Implement Policy of ‘Vegetables as the Key’ in Near Suburbs, Let a New Vegetable Planting Wave to Surge up], p. 3.
137 TJZHB no. 11–12 (30 June 1961). ‘Tianjinshi jiguan, tuanti deng kaiken jinjiao huangdi shixing banfa’ [The Test Methods for the Tianjin City Administration System, Groups, etc. on Land Reclamation in Near Suburbs], pp. 2–3.
138 TJZHB no. 19 (20 October 1961). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei, shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu jiji kaiken jinjiao huangdide zhishi’ [Tianjin City Party Committee and City People's Committee Circular on Vigorously Reclaiming Land in Near Suburbs], pp. 2.
139 TJZHB no. 19 (20 October 1961). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjin shiwei, shi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu jiji kaiken jinjiao huangdide zhishi’ [Tianjin City Party Committee and City People's Committee Circular on Vigorously Reclaiming Land in Near Suburbs], pp. 2–4.
140 TJZHB no. 19 (20 October 1961). ‘Tianjin renmin weiyuanhui guanyu gongren, xuesheng canjia gouying nongchang jinjiao kenhuang laodongde banfa’ [Tianjin City People's Committee on the Way Workers and Students Will Join the Near Suburb Land Reclamation Workforce], pp. 4–5.
141 LSJ, p. 120.
142 TJZHB no. 20 (31 October 1961). ‘Zhong-Gong Tianjinshi weiyuanhui Tianjinshi renmin weiyuanhui guanyu zuohao qiucai, xunzai, yunshu he fenpei gongzuode tongzhi’ [The Tianjin City Party Committee and the City People's Committee on the Good Methods to Harvest, Storage, Transport and Allocate Autumn Vegetable Crop], p. 3.
143 LSJ, pp. 156 and 164; Ershangzhi, p. 477.
144 Paltemaa, The Maoist Urban State and Crisis.