¹ Reischauer, , in Edwin O. Reischauer and Albert M. Craig, Japan: Tradition and Transformation (Sydney, 1979), p. 86.Google Scholar

² Tenna gannen koshō-kei Edo kagami, in Hiroshi, Hashimoto (ed.), (Kaitei zōhō) Dai bukan, 3 vols (Tokyo, 1965), Vol. 1, pp. 156–82.Google Scholar

³ Smith, Thomas C. makes this tally in The Agrarian Origins of Modern Japan (Stanford, 1959), p. 89.Google ScholarThe manual is the Nōgyō zensho, by Antei, Miyazaki, in Hideo, Hirose et al. (eds), Kinsei kagaku shisō (Tokyo, 1971), Vol. 62, pp. 67–165.Google Scholar

⁴ Edo sōganoko meisho taizen, pt 6, in Hangyō-kai, Edo Sōsho, Edo Sosho (Tokyo, 1916), vols 3–4.Google Scholar

⁵ For the 1659 catalog, Bunko, Shidō (ed.), (Edo jidai) Shorin shuppan shoseki mokuroku shūsei (Tokyo, 1962–1964), 4 vols.Google ScholarFor discussion, Shively, Donald H., ‘Popular Culture,’ in Hall, John W. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1991), Vol. 4, p. 731.Google Scholar

⁶ Shively, 1991; Hanley, Susan B., ’Tokugawa Society: Material Culture, Standard of Living, and Life-styles,’ in Hall, (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1991), vol, 4, pp. 660–705;Google Scholarand Rubinger, Richard, Private Academies of Tokugawa Japan (Princeton, 1982).Google Scholar

⁷ Akito, Mizuhar, Edogo, Tōkyōgo, hyōjungo (Tokyo, 1994).Google Scholar

⁸ Miller, Roy Andrew, The Japanese Language (Chicago, 1967);Google Scholarand Masachie, Nakamoto, Nihon rettō gengoshi no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1990).Google Scholar

⁹ The best study in English of the early rice regime is Farris, William Wayne, Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900 (Cambridge, MA, 1985).Google Scholar

¹⁰ Mass, Jeffrey P., Lordship and Inheritance in Medieval Japan (Stanford, 1989);Google ScholarYasusuke, Murakami, ‘Ie Society as a Pattern of Civilization,’ in The Journal of Japanese Studies 10, 2: 279–363.Google Scholar

¹¹ Goodwin, Janet, Alms and Vagabonds: Buddhist Temples and Popular Patronage in Medieval Japan (Honolulu, 1994);Google ScholarRuch, Barbara, ‘The Other Side of Culture,’ in Yamamura, Kozo (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1990), Vol. 3, pp. 500–43.Google Scholar

¹² Studies in English of early Japanese foreign contacts are few. See Borgen, Robert, Sugawara no Michizane and the Early Heian Court (Cambridge, MA, 1986);Google Scholarand Pollack, David, The Fracture of Meaning: Japan's Synthesis of China from the 8th through the 18th Centuries (Princeton, 1986).Google Scholar

¹³ See, for example, Gluck, Carol, Japan's Modern Myths: Ideology in the Late Meiji Period (Princeton, 1985);Google Scholarand Fujitani, Takashi, ‘Japan's Modern National Ceremonies: A Historical Ethnography,’ Ph.D. dissertation, University of California,Berkeley, 1986.Google ScholarFor discussion of the transition, see Jansen, Marius and Rozman, Gilbert, Japan in Transition: From Tokugawa to Meiji (Princeton, 1986).Google Scholar

¹⁴ The modernization school in Tokugawa studies is best represented in English by Bellah, Robert, Tokugawa Religion (Glencoe, 1957);Google ScholarDore, Ronald, Education in Tokugawa Japan (Berkeley, 1965); and Thomas C. Smith, 1959.Google Scholar

¹⁵ Dore, , 1965.Google Scholar

¹⁶ Skocpol, Theda, States and Social Revolutions (Cambridge, 1979);Google ScholarAnderson, Perry, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1974).Google Scholar

¹⁷ Lieberman, this volume.Google Scholar

¹⁸ Discussions in English of Tokugawa period publishing include Shively, 1991; Smith, Henry D. II, ‘The History of the Book in Edo and Paris,’ in McClain, James L. et al. eds), Edo and Paris: Urban Life and the State in the Early Modem Era (Ithaca, 1994);Google ScholarChibbett, David, The History of Japanese Printing and Book Illustration (Tokyo, 1977);Google ScholarMoriya, Katsuhisa, ‘Urban Networks and Information Networks,’ in Nakane, Chie and Oishi, Shinzaburo (eds), Tokugawa Japan (Tokyo, 1990), pp. 97–123Google Scholarand Kornicki, Peter, ‘The Publisher's Go-Between: Kashihon'ya in the Meiji Period,’ Modern Asian Studies 14, 2: 331–44.Google Scholar

¹⁹ Shively, , 1991, pp. 726–7.Google Scholar

²⁰ RyOichi, Iida and Motoaki, Tawara, Edo-zu no rekishi (Tokyo, 1988), 2 vols. Among the larger and more accessible holders of Tokugawa period maps are the National Diet Library, the Kobe City Museum, the Tenri Library, and the Tokugawa Institute for the History of Forestry (Tokyo).Google Scholar

²¹ Hall, John W., Keiji, Nagahara, and Yamamura, Kozo (eds), Japan Before Tokugawa: Political Consolidation and Economic Growth, 1500–1650 (Princeton, 1981);Google Scholarand Berry, Mary Elizabeth, The Culture of Civil War in Kyoto (Berkeley, 1994).Google Scholar

²² Yamamura, Kozo, ‘Returns on Unification: Economic Growth in Japan 1550–1650,’ in Hall, 1981, pp. 327–72;Google ScholarKeiji, Nagahara and Yamamura, Kozo, ‘Shaping the Process of Unification: Technological Progress in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Japan,’ Journal of Japanese Studies 14, 1: 77–109;Google ScholarHanley, Susan B. and Yamamura, Kozo, Economic and Demographic Change in Preindustrial Japan (Princeton, 1977).Google Scholar

²³ Berry, Mary Elizabeth, Hideyoshi (Cambridge, MA, 1982);Google ScholarNaohiro, Asao, ‘The Sixteenth-century Unification,’ in Hall, (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1991), Vol. 4, pp. 40–95.Google Scholar

²⁴ Ravin, Mark a reviews the arguments over this matter and includes a good bibliography in ‘State-Building and Political Economy in Early Modern Japan,’ Journal of Asian Studies 54, 4: 997–1022.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

²⁵ The classic statement on agrarian taxation in English remains Smith, Thomas C., ‘The Land Tax in the Tokugawa Period,’ in Hall, John W. and Jansen, Marius B. (eds), Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan (Princeton, 1968), pp. 283–99.Google ScholarCommerce is explored in Hauser, William B., Economic Institutional Change in Tokugawa Japan (Cambridge, 1974);Google Scholarand Hall, John W., Tanuma Okitsugu (Cambridge, 1955).Google ScholarAlso, see Suzuki, Tessa Morris, A History of Japanese Economic Thought (London, 1989).Google Scholar

²⁶ I know of no extended modern study of the multiple roles of Tokugawa period samurai and the consequences of maintaining a large elite that was over-educated, under-employed, and poorly paid. For portraits of individual samurai thinkers, see Nakai, Kate Wildman, Shogunal Politics: Arai Hakuseki and the Premises of Tokugawa Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1988);Google Scholarand Lidin, Olof, Ogyu Sorai's Distinguishing the Way (Tokyo, 1970).Google Scholar

²⁷ Yi-T'ung, Wang, Official Relations Between China and Japan, 1368–1549 (Cambridge, MA, 1953);Google ScholarShoji, Kawazoe, ‘Japan and East Asia,’ in Yamamura, (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1990), Vol. 3, pp. 396–446.Google Scholar

²⁸ Toby, Ronald P., State and Diplomacy in Early Modern Japan: Asia in the Development of the Tokugawa Bakufu (Stanford, 1984);Google ScholarBoxer, Charles R., The Christian Century in Japan (Berkeley, 1951);Google ScholarElisonas, Jurgis, ‘The Inseparable Trinity: Japan's Relations with China and Korea,’ in Hall, (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1991), Vol. 4, pp. 235–300.Google Scholar

²⁹ Toby, 1984; Innes, Robert LeRoy, ‘The Door Ajar: Japan's Foreign Trade in the Seventeenth Century,’ Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1980.Google Scholar

³⁰ Totman, Conrad, Early Modem Japan (Berkeley, 1993), p. 148.Google Scholar

³¹ Innes, , 1980; Totman, 1993, pp. 140–8.Google Scholar

³² These are the principal subjects of Innes, 1980.Google Scholar

³³ The seventeenth-century military historian Yamaga Sokō reconstructs the major battles, with notes on muskets and casualties, in Buke jiki (Tokyo, 1965), pp. 749–1189.Google ScholarFor coinage, Yamamura, Kozo and Kamiki, Tetsuo, ‘Silver Mines and Sung Coins,’ in Richards, J. F. (ed.), Precious Metals in the Later Medieval and Early Modem Worlds (Durham, 1983), pp. 329–62.Google ScholarFor mining and smelting, Atsushi, Kobata, Kingin bōeki-shi no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1976).Google Scholar

³⁴ Research on such exchange is eloquently called for, and pursued by, Wigen, Karen. See ‘Mapping Early Modernity: Geographical Meditations on a Comparative Concept,’ Early Modern Japan 5, 2: 1–13;Google ScholarThe Making of a Japanese Periphery, 1750–1920 (Berkeley, 1995);Google Scholar‘The Geographic Imagination in Early Modern Japanese History,’ Journal of Asian Studies 51, 1: 3–29.Google Scholar

³⁵ Elison, George, Deus Destroyed (Cambridge, MA, 1973);Google ScholarNosco, Peter (ed.), Confucianism and Tokugawa Culture (Princeton, 1984).Google Scholar

³⁶ Elisonas, 1991; Toby, 1984.Google Scholar

³⁷ Wakabayashi, Bob Tadashi, Anti-Foreignism and Western Learning in Early Modern Japan (Cambridge, MA, 1986).CrossRefGoogle Scholar

³⁸ Berry, , 1982, p. 208.Google Scholar

³⁹ Totman, , 1993, pp. 113–14.Google Scholar

⁴⁰ Boxer, , 1951, p. 448;Google ScholarElisonas, Jurgis, ‘Christianity and the Daimyo,’ in Hall, (ed.), The Cambridge History of Japan (Cambridge, 1991), Vol. 4, p. 370.Google Scholar

⁴¹ Among the clearest figures are those available for Hideyoshi's first Korean campaign. See Berry, 1982, p. 209.Google Scholar

⁴² Rozman, Gilbert, ‘Edo's Importance in the Changing Tokugawa Society,’ Journal of Japanese Studies 1, 1: 91–112;Google ScholarUrban Networks in Ch'ing China and Tokugawa Japan (Princeton, 1974). Also, see n. 24.Google Scholar

⁴³ Smith, Thomas C., Nakahara (Stanford, 1977); Hanley and Yamamura, 1977.Google Scholar

⁴⁴ Smith, , 1959.Google Scholar

⁴⁵ See, for example, the laws cited by Lu, David John, Sources of Japanese History (New York, 1974), Vol. 1, pp. 199–232;Google ScholarNajita, Tetsuo, Visions of Virtue in Tokugawa Japan (Chicago, 1987), pp. 60–98.Google Scholar

⁴⁶ For a census of premodern maps, Toranosuke, Nishioka, Nihon shōen ezu shūsei, 2 vols (Tokyo, 1976–1977).Google ScholarFor further analysis, Rekishi, KokuritsuHakubutsukan, Minzoku (ed.), Shōen ezu to sono sekai (Tokyo. 1993).Google Scholar

⁴⁷ Basic surveys with extensive illustrations include Matsutarō, Namba et al. (eds), Nihon no kochizu (Tokyo, 1969);Google ScholarTakejirō, Akioka (ed.), Nihon kochizu shūsei (Tokyo, 1971);Google ScholarKazutaka, Unno et al. (eds), Nihon kochizu taisei (Tokyo, 1972).Google ScholarAlso, see Cortazzi, Hugh, Isles of Gold (Tokyo, 1983);Google ScholarHarley, J. B. and Woodward, David (eds), Historyof Cartography, Vol. 2, pt 2:Google ScholarEast Asia (Chicago, 1994).Google Scholar

⁴⁸ See, for example, illustration 31 in Unno, 1972. National names (including Honchō, Yamato) tend to appear on the coverings of the maps, rather than on their faces. Ezo, or Hokkaido, rarely appears in national maps before the eighteenth century. The indices list both Asian and European countries, sometimes in Chinese characters, sometimes in a phonetic syllabary.Google Scholar

⁴⁹ These conventions derive from the shogunal surveys. The most important is the identification of daimyo power with an urban headquarters and a productivity figure, rather than with a bounded territory.Google Scholar

⁵⁰ I rely on Wood, Denis, The Power of Maps (New York, 1992);Google Scholarand Turnbull, David, Maps are Territories: Science is an Atlas (Deakin, Australia, 1989).Google Scholar

⁵¹ ŌshikŌchi's Dōin's surveys of Edo for the shogunate were printed commercially in the 1670s, and atlas versions of the shogunal surveys of the nation were printed by the 1660s. Some official urban surveys, particularly of castle fortifications, remained sensitive and did not circulate. Protection of cartographic secrets (such as Inō Tadataka's coastal surveys) was most pronounced in the nineteenth century.Google Scholar

⁵² See, for example, illustrations 83 and 84 in Unno, 1972.Google Scholar

⁵³ Akiko, Baba et al. (eds), Meisho: Hare kūkan no kōzō (Shizen to bunka 27) (Tokyo, 1990).Google Scholar

⁵⁴ In the various village reports (meisai-chō, fūzoku-chō) that daimyo periodically required from villagers themselves, meisho was one of many standard categories of local description. See Kichinosuke, Shōji (ed.), Aizu fūdoki, fūzokuchō, 3 vols (Tokyo, 1979–1980).Google Scholar

⁵⁵ The most helpful survey of the guide literature is Mankichi, Wada (Shintei zōhō) Kohan chishi kaidai (Tokyo, 1968).Google Scholar

⁵⁶ Tsunezo, Shinjō, Shaji sankei no shakai keizai-shi teki kenkyū (Tokyo, 1964).Google Scholar

⁵⁷ Eiji, Hirano, Fuji Asama shinkō (Tokyo, 1987); Shinjō, 1964.Google Scholar

⁵⁸ Ryōi, Asai, Edo meisho-ki (Edo Sōsho Hangyō-kai, 1916), Vol. 1, pp. 3–5.Google Scholar

⁵⁹ The most copious and regularly revised directories were versions of the Kyoto Brocade (Kyō habutae) and the Dappled Cloth of Edo (Edo ganoko). See Kyōto, ShinshūHangyō-kai, Shōsho (ed.), Shinshū Kyōto sōsho (Kyoto, 1968), Vol. 2; and Edo Sōsho Hangyō-kai, 1916, vols 3–4.Google Scholar

⁶⁰ Edo sōganoko meisho taizen, literally ‘The Dappled Cloth of Edo: Encyclopedia of Famous Places,’ from Jōkyō 4, in Edo Sōsho Hangyō-kai, 1916, vols. 3–4.Google Scholar