1 Oswald. P. Backus, “The Impact of the Baltic and Finnic People Upon Russian History,” Journal of Baltic Studies, Vol. IV, No. 1 (New York, 1973), p. 2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

2 The Catechism by Martynas Mažvydas was published in Koenigsberg in 1547 and had been accepted generally as the first publication in Lithuanian. However, recently the text of a prayer published in 1503 has been discovered in the library of the University of Vilnius This pushed back the date of the first publication over four decades, nevertheless, because of the religious content it reemphasized the importance of the Reformation to the Lithuanian language.Google Scholar

3 A. Venclova, chief ed., Lietuvos TSR Bibliografija, I, Series A, 1547–1861 (Vilnius: Mintis, 1969), xii.Google Scholar

4 Ibid., pp. 550–574.Google Scholar

5 Up to this point East Prussia was the center for Lithuanian publication and at the University of Koenigsberg a good deal of attention was paid to Lithuanian literature. Almost all of the population of this area at this time used the Lithuanian language. “Rytu Prusijos Lietuviai,” Mazoji Lietuviskoji Tarybine Enciklopedija, III,(Vilnius: Mintis, 1971), p. 91. Further reference to Mazoji Lietuyiskoji Tarybine Enciklopedija will be MLTE.Google Scholar

6 Birziska, Mykolas, Senasis Vilniaus Universitetas, (London: Nida, 1955), pp. 3–8, 13–15; “Vilniaus Adademija, Lietuviu Enciklopedija, XXXIV, (Boston: Lietuviu Enciklopedija Leidykla, 1966), pp. 132–136. Further reference to Lietuviu Encyklopedija will be LE.Google Scholar

7 MLTE, III, p. 249.Google Scholar

8 W. Feldman, Geschichte der polnischen Ideen, (Munich: R. Oldenbourg, 1917), p. 671 Koncevicius, Joseph, “Education in Lithuania,” Catholic Educational Review, February, 1926, p. 79.Google Scholar

9 This does not imply that during the interim a complete dearth in the production of works in Lithuania existed. They continued to come forth in the eighteenth century and it was then that one of Lithuanian greatest poets lived. This was Donelaitis, Kristojonas, whose work Metai in hexameter has been translated into a number of languages. His vivid description of nature and his sound realism stand out in an age of sentimental poetry. For an original reproduction see Kostas Korsakas and Jurgis Lebedys, eds., Lietuviu Literatūros Istorijos Chrestomatija, (Vilnius: Vastybine Grožinés Literatūros Leidykla, 1957), pp. 162–177. The text in contemporary literary Lithuanian can be found in Jonas Aistis and Antanas Vaičiulaitis, eds., Lietuviu Poezijos Antologija, Chicago: Draugas, 1951), pp. 127–146.Google Scholar

10 Kostas Korsakas and Jurgis Lebedys, eds., Lietuviu Literatures Istorijos Chrestomatija, (Vilnius: Valstybine Grozines Literatūros Leidykla, 1957), pp. 325–331.Google Scholar

11 For more on Daukantas see LE, IX, pp. 363–366; MLTE,I, pp. 373–374; Korsakas, Lietuviu, pp. 463–479.Google Scholar

12 Further information on Valančius can be found in LE, XXXII., pp. 523–531; MLTE, III, pp. 666–667; Kostas Korsakas, ed., Lietuviu Literatūros Istorija, II, (Vilnius Valstybine Politines ir Mokslines Literatures Leidykla, 1958), pp. 43–51; Vaclovas Biržiska, Vyskupo Motiejaus Valančiauz Blografijos Broužai, (Brooklyn: Franciscan Press, 1952].Google Scholar

13 A. Alekna, Žemaičiu Vyskupas Motiejus Valančius, (Kaunas: 1922), p. 50.Google Scholar

14 Koncevičius, “Education in Lithuania,” Vytautas Bagdanavičius, “Svarbiausieji spaudos draudimo tarpsniai,” Kovos Metai Del Savosios Spaudos, (Chicago: Draugas, 1957), p. 16.Google Scholar

15 A. Kučas, “Marijampolé,” LE, p. 347; MLTE, III, p. 451.Google Scholar

16 Grinius, Kazys, Atsiminiai ir Mintys, (Tubingen: Patria, 1947), p. 21.Google Scholar

17 Matusas, Jonas, “Lotyniškojo Raidyno Draudimas,” Kovos Metai Dėl Savosios Spaudos, pp. 116–117.Google Scholar

18 Pervaia Vseobshchaia Perepis' Naseleniia Rossiiskoi Imperil, 1897g.; XVII Kovenskaia-Guberniia, 1904, p. 111; herafter referred to as Per. Vseob. The actual figures were divided into those literate in the Russian language and those literate in an “other” language. This leaves the possibility that a percentage would be other than Lithuanian. However, this would be insignificant, since in the first place these individuals listed themselves as Lithuanians. Secondly, by this time the Lithuanian language and nationalism had taken hold quite strongly as a number of individuals have testified in their memoirs. Z. Ivinskis, Vyskupo P. Bučio Atsiminimai, (Chicago: Draugas, 1966), 63–64; Vanda Tuměnienė-Mingailaite, Mano Atsiminimai, (Chicago: Morkŭnas Press, 1957), 15; Grinius, Kazys, Atsiminimai; Bielinis, Kipras, Dienojant, (South Boston: Lietuviu Enciklopedijos spaustuvė, 1958). A number of biographies indicate a similar conclusion. Vincas Tercijonas, Prof. Dr. Med. Pranas Gudas-Gudavičius, (Chicago: Naujienos, 1959)., 19–20; Simas Sužiedelis, Kunigas Jonas Nuo Kryziaus, (Putnam; Immaculate Press, 1956), 11–16; Alsenas, Pranys, Martynas Jankus, (Cleveland: Vilties, 1967), 17–67.Google Scholar

19 Per. Vseob.: XVII. Kovenskaia Guerniia, 1904, pp. 108–109.Google Scholar

20 Kudirka, Juozas, Veiveriu Mokytoju Seminarija 1866–1918, (Vilnius: Pergalé, 197.0), 11.Google Scholar

21 Grinius, op. cit., 57–58.Google Scholar

22 Kudirka, Veiveriu, p. 21.Google Scholar

23 Ibid., p. 29.Google Scholar

24 MLTE, III, p. 451.Google Scholar

25 The first such society was Šviesa which, was established in 1905 in the Suwalki area and lasted until 1909. This was followed by Žiburys and Saulė. The former was also located in the Suwalki region and continued to operate until the Second World War. In 1907 it founded a middle school in Marijanpolė which used the Lithuanian language for instruction. By 1910 Saulė had established forty schools and in 1919 it started a teachers college for girls in Kaunas. In 1912, the Rytas organization was established and later built a gymnasium in Vilnius. Ibid., pp. 446, 906–907, 165, 89.Google Scholar

26 Some were of very short duration, while others lasted until World War II. The names were compelled from a section, “Periodiniu Leidiniu Rodyklė,” which appeared at the end of Vincas Kapsukas Raštai. Only the first seven volumes were used. R. Maliukevičius, ed., Vincas Kapsukas Raštai, I-VII,(Vilnius: Vaga, 1964). In addition, the three volumes of MLTE were used; and Aužuolaitis' “Literatur der Litauer,” Allgemeine litauische Rundschau, (Tilsit: No. 1, January, 1910), pp. 26–31.Google Scholar

27 St. Butkus, “Knygnešiu Patriarchas Jurgis Bieliakas Bielinis Baltasis Erelis,” Knygnešys, 1864–1904, (Kaunas: ?)Google Scholar

28 Ruseckas, Petras, “Spaudos Draudimo Gadynė,” Knygnešys 1864–1904, (Kaunas: Varpas, 1926), p. 12.Google Scholar

29 L. Veinber, “Suvalskaia Guberniia,” Entsiklopedicheskii Slovar, XXXI, (St. Petersburg: Brokgaus i Efron, 1901), pp. 891–92.Google Scholar

30 Polnoe Sobraniie Zakonov Rossiiskoi Imperii, (sobranie vtoroe), XLI, No. 44, 012. Henceforth cited as Pol. Sob. Zak. Google Scholar

31 K. Vrangel, “Koyenskaia Guberniia,” Entsiklopedicheskii Sloyar, XV, (St. Petersburg; Brokgaus i Efron, 1895), pp.510–513.Google Scholar

32 I. I. Goshkevich, Vilenskaia Guberniia, (Vilnius: Gubernaia Tipograffia, 1905), p. 1.Google Scholar

33 Ibid., p. 4.Google Scholar

34 Milosz, Czeslaw, Native Realm, (New York: Doubleday & Co., 1968), p. 96.Google Scholar

35 There have been a number of studies on the national movement in Lithuania including Manfred Hellmann's “Die litauische Nationalbewegung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert,” Zeitschrift für Ostforschung, II, No. 1 (1953), pp. 66–106; and Jonas Puzinas, Vorgeschichtsforschung und Nationalbewusstsein in Litauen, (Kaunas, 1935).Google Scholar

36 Alfred Erich Senn, “On the State of Central Lithuania,” Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas, XII (1964), p. 366.Google Scholar

37 In his article “Earliest Statistics of Nationalities and Religions in the Territories of Old Lithuania, 1861,” Kazys Pakstas discusses Lebedkin's findings and also reproduces eight tables of statistics: Commentationes Balticai, IV/V (Bonn, 1958), pp. 1969–211. See Appendix I.Google Scholar

38 For further discussion on this aspect see V. Merkys, “Lietuvos Miestu Gyventoju Tautybes XIX a. Pabaigoje–XXa. Pradzioje Klausimu,” Lietuvos TSR Mokslu Akademijos Darbai, Series A, 2(5), 1958, 85.Google Scholar

39 Riech, November 1, 1907, p. 5.Google Scholar

40 Saltinis, January 3, 1908, p. 13.Google Scholar

41 Gosudarstvennaia Duma. Stenograficheskie otchety, (St. Petersburg: Gosudarstvennaia Tipografiia, 1906–1916). III, 1, II, 2500. The Roman and Arabic numbers represent the Duma, session, part, and page or column respectively. Hereafter cited as Stenog. ot. Google Scholar

42 Stenog. ot., III, 3, I, 2708.Google Scholar

43 Stenog. ot., III, Index, 16.Google Scholar

44 Stenog. ot., passim; Howard P. Kennard, ed., The Russian Yearbook for 1912, (London; Eyre & Spottiswoode, Ltd., 1913), pp. 727–729.Google Scholar

45 Kubilius, Juozas, Viltininko Mintys, (Kaunas: Spindulys, 1929), pp. 281–232.Google Scholar

46 Bielinis, Kipras, Penktieji Metal, (New York: Lietuviu Enciklopedijos spaustuvé, 1959), p. 232. Bielinis was a leader of the Social Democratic Party. After being expelled from school in 1902, he joined the Social Democratic Party in Lithuania and actively fought the Russian government. He was arrested in Nobember 1907, survived hard labor in Riga and, in 1912, was exiled to Siberia but escaped following the revolution of February 1917. Bielinis then temporarily became the secretary of the Lithuanian Commissariat in Moscow. From 1922–1926 he was a member of the first, second and third seimas in which he spoke out in behalf of his socialist principles. After the right wing takeover in 1926, Bielinis withdrew from active politics but with the Soviet and German occupations he once again became involved. In 1949 he emigrated to the United States where he worked fostering Lithuanianism until his death in 1965. In addtion to the above, see Bielinis, Dienojant; J. Viks, “Kipra Bielini Prisiminus,” Mintis, I, No. 1, 1971, 53–68.Google Scholar

47 Pol. Sob. Zak. (sobr. tretie), XXV, No. 26, 803.Google Scholar

48 For the complete text see Kairys, To Thee, Lithuania, pp. 91–92, or Ziugzda, Lithuanian SSR Historical Sources, pp. 390–392.Google Scholar

49 Thomas G. Chase, The Story of Lithuania, (New York: Stratford House, 1946), p. 260.Google Scholar

50 Kochan, Lionel, Russia in Revolution 1890–1918, (New York: The New American Library, 19657, p. 219.Google Scholar

51 Robert Paul Browder and Alexander F. Kerensky, eds., The Russian Provisional Government 1917, I, (Standford: Stanford University Press, 1961), p. 317.Google Scholar

52 Ibid., p. 319.Google Scholar

53 Ibid., pp. 319, 320.Google Scholar